On approval of the handbook on the best available techniques for "Waste disposal"

Resolution of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated June 2, 2026 No. 207

In accordance with paragraph 6 of Article 113 of the Environmental Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan DECIDES:

     1. To approve the attached handbook on the best available techniques for "Waste disposal".

     2. This resolution shall enter into force from the date of its signing.

The Prime Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan

O. Bektenov

Approved by Resolution No. 207 of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan on June 2, 2026

Handbook on the best available techniques for "Waste disposal"

     List of drawings

     List of tables

     Glossary

     The preface

     Scope of application

     Principles of application

     1. General information

     1.1. General definitions of waste disposal, waste disposal facilities

     1.2. Types of waste and their formation. Overview of the waste disposal industry

     1.3. Auxiliary operations

     1.4. Environmental aspects of industrial and consumer waste disposal

     1.4.1. Emissions of pollutants into the atmospheric air

     1.4.2. Effects on groundwater and surface waters, discharges of pollutants

     1.4.3. Impact on land resources

     1.5. Energy consumption

     1.6. Factors of physical impact

     1.7. Emergency preparedness and response

     2. Methodology for determining the best available techniques

     2.1. Determination, principles of BAT selection

     2.2. Criteria for attributing techniques to NDT

     2.3. Economic aspects of BAT implementation

     2.3.1. Approaches to the economic assessment of BAT

     2.3.2. Methods of economic assessment of BAT

     2.3.3. Investment justification of costs

     2.3.4. Cost-benefit analysis

     2.3.5. The ratio of costs and key economic indicators

     2.3.6. Cost increase

     2.3.7. Cost-benefit ratio

     2.3.8. Payments and fines for negative impact on the environment

     2.3.9. Calculation "on installation"

     3. Applied processes: technological, technical solutions currently used

     3.1. Processes at hazardous waste landfills – Class 1

     3.2. Processes at non-hazardous waste landfills – Class 2

     3.3. Processes at landfills of solid household waste (MSW) – Class 3

     3.4. Processes at long-term waste storage facilities in the mining industry

     3.5. Processes at long-term waste storage facilities of energy, metallurgical and chemical-metallurgical industries

     3.6. Current levels of emissions into the environment at waste disposal facilities

     3.7. Energy efficiency

     4. Common best available techniques for preventing and/or reducing emissions and resource consumption

     4.1. NDT of an organizational, managerial and organizational-technical nature

     4.1.1. Implementation of the environmental management system

     4.1.2. Implementation of the energy Management system

     4.2. Process control

     4.3. Environmental emissions management

     4.4. Emissions monitoring

     4.4.1. Monitoring of pollutant emissions

     4.4.2. Monitoring of discharges of pollutants into water bodies

     4.4.3. Groundwater monitoring

     4.5. Control techniques and reduction of physical impact

     4.5.1. Noise

     4.5.2. Vibration

     4.6. The smell

     4.7. Waste management

     5. Techniques that are considered when choosing

     the best available techniques

     5.1. Technicians in the design, construction and arrangement of waste disposal facilities

     5.1.1. Anti-filtration screen

     5.1.2. Vertical anti-filtration curtain

     5.1.3. Strengthening of external slopes of enclosing devices during their burial in bulk

     5.1.4. Landfill gas collection (degassing) system at solid waste disposal facilities..

     5.1.5. Wastewater discharge system (drainage system)

     5.1.6. Monitoring wells

     5.2. Technicians in the operation of waste disposal facilities

     5.2.1. BAT aimed at preparatory operations

     5.2.1.1. Preparation of solid waste for burial by sorting them with extraction of resource fractions and organic biodegradable materials

     5.2.1.2. Crushing of lump waste before burial

     5.2.1.3. Preparation of solid waste for burial by pressing and (or) briquetting

     5.2.2. BAT aimed at waste disposal

     5.2.2.1. Hydraulic spraying during the disposal of waste from extraction and enrichment of natural resources in bulk

     5.2.2.2. Compaction of waste during its burial in bulk

     5.2.2.3 Strengthening of external slopes of waste during bulk disposal

     5.2.2.4. Hydraulic spraying of solid waste during burial in bulk

     5.2.2.5. Layer-by-layer coating of solid waste with an inert material that is not prohibited for use

     5.2.2.6. Disposal of waste that has been sorted

     5.2.2.7. Prevention of dusting on dry beaches when waste is deposited in storage facilities by maintaining the level of the "water mirror" above the upper limit of beaches

     5.2.2.8. Vermicomposting

     5.2.2.9. Disposal of ash and ash slags from thermal waste disposal

     5.2.3. NDT aimed at filtrate treatment

     5.2.3.1. Filtrate treatment

     5.2.3.2. Treatment of drainage and stormwater before their discharge into water bodies

     5.2.3.3. Recirculation of filtration and drainage waters during solid waste disposal..

     5.2.3.4. The use of filtrate for surface humidification of waste in order to prevent fires, dusting, and wind dispersal

     5.2.4. BAT in the field of energy and resource conservation

     5.2.4.1. Heat recovery

     5.2.4.2. Degassing and utilization of biogas

     5.2.4.3. Implementation of automated monitoring and management systems for filtrate and biogas

     5.2.4.4. Application of automated control systems for landfill operations

     5.2.5. BAT aimed at landfill gas treatment

     5.2.5.1. Landfill gas treatment

     5.2.5.2. Cogeneration

     5.2.5.3. Flaring

     5.3. Technicians during the closure and liquidation of waste disposal facilities

     5.3.1. Installation of the upper insulating coating

     5.3.2. Reclamation of waste disposal facilities

     5.3.3. Sowing of perennial grasses and grass mixtures of local breeds, landscaping, prevention of soil erosion

     5.4. BAT aimed at preventing and reducing emissions of pollutants

     5.4.1. Defending

     5.4.2. Chemical precipitation

     5.4.3. Adsorption using activated carbon

     5.4.4. Neutralization

     5.4.5. Oxidation

     5.4.6. Coagulation, flocculation

     5.4.7. Cyanide processing using membrane technology

     5.4.8. Precipitation of cyanide with iron sulfate

     5.4.9. Oxidative processes of cyanide removal

     5.4.10. Prevention of cyanide contamination by reducing their concentration in terricon reservoirs to the lowest possible level

     6. A conclusion containing conclusions on the best available techniques

     6.1. General BAT

     6.1.1. Environmental management system

     6.1.2. Energy consumption management, energy efficiency

     6.1.3. Management of technological processes

     6.1.4. Emissions monitoring

     6.1.5. Noise, vibration, smell

     6.2. Unorganized emissions

     6.3. Organized emissions

     6.3.1. Carbon monoxide emissions

     6.3.2. Emissions of nitrogen oxides

     6.4. Water management, wastewater disposal and treatment

     6.5. Waste management

     6.6. Remediation requirements

     7. Promising techniques

     7.1. Advanced techniques in the construction of waste disposal facilities

     7.1.1. Application of zeolites in protective layers

     7.2. Promising techniques in the operation of waste disposal facilities

     7.2.1. Advanced techniques for transporting waste to waste disposal facilities.

     7.2.1.1. Automated remote input waste control system

     7.2.2. Promising techniques for waste disposal

     7.2.2.1. Technology of bioactivation of waste from solid waste disposal facilities

     7.2.2.3. Optimization of the MSW disposal facility through the use of a multifunctional work site

     7.2.3. Promising techniques for handling filtration, drainage, and stormwater

     7.2.3.1. Lithification of filtrate formed at solid waste disposal facilities, followed by its use for layer-by-layer insulation

     7.2.4. Advanced techniques for handling atmospheric emissions

     7.2.4.1. Fixing of dusty surfaces of waste disposal facilities

     7.2.4.2. Technology of the biogas extraction, combustion and exhaust gas purification system at the solid waste disposal facility

     7.2.4.3. Method of thermal neutralization of biogas from solid waste disposal facilities

     7.2.4.4. Method of collecting and discharging filtration waters and biogas at solid waste disposal facilities

     7.2.4.5. Oxidative processes of cyanide removal

     7.3. Promising techniques for the closure of waste disposal facilities during the post-operational period

     7.3.1. The use of slags with a predominant content of calcium oxide in the construction of layered insulating coatings for waste disposal facilities

     7.4. Advanced techniques in the field of energy and resource conservation

     7.4.1. Integration of systems using hydrogen

     7.4.2. The use of high-efficiency thermoelectric generators 242

     7.4.3. Energy storage systems

     7.4.4. Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) technologies

     7.5. Advanced techniques for monitoring the condition of waste disposal facilities

7.5.1. Monitoring the condition of the insulating coating of waste disposal facilities using an industrial X-ray scanner

     7.5.2. Monitoring the condition of waste disposal facilities by remote sensing

     7.5.3. Monitoring of the slopes of waste disposal facilities based on a sensor system

     8. Additional comments and recommendations

     Bibliography

     Table of contents

     List of drawings

Список таблиц

      Глоссарий

      Настоящий глоссарий предназначен для облегчения понимания информации, содержащейся в настоящем справочнике по наилучшим доступным техникам "Захоронение отходов" (далее – справочник по НДТ). Определения терминов в этом глоссарии не являются юридическими определениями (даже если некоторые из них могут совпадать с определениями, приведенными в нормативных правовых актах Республики Казахстан).

      Глоссарий представлен следующими разделами:

      термины и определения;

      сокращения и обозначения;

      химические формулы;

      единицы измерения.

      Термины и определения

      В настоящем справочнике по НДТ используются следующие термины:

      Аббревиатуры и их расшифровка

Единицы измерения

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      Предисловие

      Краткое описание содержания справочника по наилучшим доступным техникам: взаимосвязь с международными аналогами

      Справочник по НДТ разработан в целях реализации Экологического кодекса Республики Казахстан (далее – Экологический кодекс) [1].

      Разработка справочника по НДТ проводилась в соответствии с Правилами разработки, применения, мониторинга и пересмотра справочников по наилучшим доступным техникам, утвержденными постановлением Правительства Республики Казахстан от 28 октября 2021 года № 775 (далее – Правила) [2].

      Перечень областей применения НДТ утвержден приложением 3 к Экологическому кодексу.

      При разработке справочника по НДТ был учтен международный опыт в данной сфере, в том числе использовались аналогичные и сопоставимые справочники, официально применяемые в государствах, являющихся членами ОЭСР, ЕС, в Российской Федерации, других странах и организациях с учетом специфики, сложившейся структуры экономики и необходимости обоснованной адаптации к климатическим, а также экологическим условиям Республики Казахстан, обуславливающим техническую и экономическую доступность НДТ в конкретных областях их применения:

      1) Landfill Directive – Directive (EU) 2018/850 – Директива Совета 1999/31/ЕС от 26 апреля 1999 года по захоронению отходов [12];

      2) Directive 2006/21/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 March 2006 on the management of waste from extractive industries – Директива Парламента и Совета Европейского Союза 2006/21/ЕС от 15 марта 2006 г. об управлении отходами добывающей промышленности [13];

      3) Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document for the Management of Waste from Extractive Industries in accordance with Directive 2006/21/EC. 2018 – Справочник по НДТ по обращению с отходами добывающей промышленности в соответствии с Директивой 2006/21/EC. 2018;

      4) ИТС НДТ 17-2021 Размещение отходов производства и потребления [14];

      5) Reference Document On Best Available Techniques For Energy Efficiency, ЕС 09/2021 – Справочник по НДТ по энергоэффективности, 09/2021 [5];

      6) ИТС 48-2017 "Повышение энергетической эффективности при осуществлении хозяйственной и (или) иной деятельности" [6];

      7) The revised Industrial and Livestock Rearing Emissions Directive (Directive 2010/75/EU or "IED 2.0") as amended by Directive 2024/1785 - Пересмотренная Директива о выбросах в промышленности и животноводстве (Директива 2010/75/EU или "IED 2.0") с поправками, внесенными Директивой 2024/1785 [7].

      Внедрение НДТ предусматривает индивидуальный подход к выбору НДТ с учетом экономики конкретного предприятия и его готовности к переходу на принципы НДТ, выбора страны-производителя НДТ, мощностных показателей, габаритов и степени локализации НДТ.

      Модернизация производственных мощностей с применением современных и эффективных техник будет способствовать ресурсосбережению и оздоровлению окружающей среды до соответствующих уровней, отвечающих эмиссиям стран ОЭСР.

      Информация о сборе данных

      В целях разработки справочника по НДТ информация об уровнях выбросов, сбросов, образовании отходов, технологических процессах, оборудовании, технических способах, методах, применяемых на объектах захоронения в Республике Казахстан, была собрана в процессе проведения КТА, правила проведения которого регламентированы действующим законодательством Республики Казахстан. Перечень объектов для прохождения КТА утвержден ТРГ по разработке справочника по НДТ "Захоронение отходов".

      Взаимосвязь с другими справочниками по НДТ

      Справочник по НДТ имеет взаимосвязь с отраслевыми и межотраслевыми справочниками по НДТ, охватывающими захоронение отходов.

      Справочник по НДТ является одним из серии разрабатываемых в соответствии с требованием Экологического кодекса национальных справочников по НДТ.

      Справочник по НДТ имеет взаимосвязь со справочниками:

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      Область применения

      В соответствии с приложением 3 Экологического кодекса настоящий межотраслевой справочник по НДТ распространяется на следующий вид деятельности: захоронение отходов, в частности на:

      полигонах опасных отходов – 1 класс;

      полигонах неопасных отходов – 2 класс;

      полигонах ТБО – 3 класс;

      объекты долгосрочного хранения отходов горнодобывающей промышленности;

      объекты долгосрочного хранения отходов энергетических, металлургических и химико-металлургических производств.

      Область применения справочника по НДТ определена ТРГ "Захоронение отходов".

      Настоящий справочник по НДТ включает описание общих подходов, методов и других соответствующих аспектов, касающихся захоронения отходов, и распространяется на все виды деятельности, связанные с процессом захоронения отходов.

      Справочник по НДТ не распространяется на:

      радиоактивные отходы;

      вспомогательные процессы, необходимые для бесперебойной эксплуатации производства, а также на внештатные режимы эксплуатации, связанные с планово-предупредительными и ремонтными работами;

      вопросы, касающиеся обеспечения промышленной безопасности и/или охраны труда.

      Принципы применения

      Статус документа

      Справочник по НДТ предназначен для информирования операторов объекта/объектов, уполномоченных государственных органов, и общественности об НДТ и любых перспективных техниках, относящихся к области применения справочника по НДТ, с целью стимулирования перехода операторов объекта/объектов на принципы "зеленой" экономики и НДТ.

      Справочник по НДТ содержит систематизированную информацию о состоянии отрасли по захоронению отходов в Республике Казахстан, а также о наиболее распространенных и новых, перспективных техниках, о потреблении ресурсов и об эмиссиях, о системах экологического и энергетического менеджмента.

      Определение НДТ осуществляется для отраслей (областей применения НДТ) на основе ряда международных принятых критериев:

      применение малоотходных технологических процессов;

      высокая ресурсная и энергетическая эффективность производства;

      рациональное использование воды, создание водооборотных циклов;

      предотвращение загрязнения, отказ от использования (или минимизация применения) особо опасных веществ;

      организация повторного использования веществ и энергии (там, где это возможно);

      экономическая целесообразность (с учетом инвестиционных циклов, характерных для отраслей применения НДТ).

      Положения, обязательные к применению

      Положения раздела "6. Заключение, содержащие выводы по наилучшим доступным техникам" справочника по НДТ являются обязательными к применению при разработке заключений по НДТ.

      Необходимость применения одного или совокупности нескольких положений заключения по НДТ определяется операторами объектов самостоятельно, исходя из целей управления экологическими аспектами на предприятии при условии соблюдения технологических показателей. Количество и перечень НДТ, приведенных в настоящем справочнике по НДТ, не являются обязательными к внедрению.

      На основании заключения по НДТ операторами объектов разрабатывается программа повышения экологической эффективности, направленная на достижение уровня технологических показателей, утвержденных в заключениях по НДТ.

      Рекомендательные положения

      Рекомендательные положения имеют описательный характер и рекомендованы к анализу процесса установления технологических показателей, связанных с применением НДТ, и к анализу при пересмотре справочников по НДТ:

      раздел 1: представлена общая информация отрасли по захоронению отходов, структуре отрасли, используемым промышленным процессам и техникам;

      раздел 2: описана методология отнесения к НДТ, подходы идентификации НДТ;

      раздел 3: описаны основные этапы производственного процесса или работающего согласно регламенту объекта захоронения, представлены данные и информация об экологических характеристиках установок с точки зрения текущих эмиссий, потребления и характера сырья, потребления воды, использования энергии и образования отходов;

      раздел 4: описаны методы, применяемые при осуществлении технологических процессов для снижения их негативного воздействия на окружающую среду и не требующие реконструкции объекта, оказывающего негативное воздействие на окружающую среду;

      раздел 5: представлено описание существующих техник, которые предлагаются для рассмотрения в целях определения НДТ;

      раздел 7: представлена информация о новых и перспективных техниках;

      раздел 8: приведены заключительные положения и рекомендации для будущей работы в рамках пересмотра справочника по НДТ.

1. Общая информация

      Настоящий раздел справочника по НДТ содержит общую информацию о конкретной области применения, включая описание отрасли по захоронению отходов, а также описание основных экологических проблем, характерных для области применения настоящего справочника по НДТ.

1.1. Общие определения о захоронении отходов, объекты захоронения отходов

      Под отходами понимаются любые вещества, материалы или предметы, образовавшиеся в процессе производства, выполнения работ, оказания услуг или в процессе потребления (в том числе товары, утратившие свои потребительские свойства), которые их владелец прямо признает отходами либо должен направить на удаление или восстановление в силу требований закона или намеревается подвергнуть либо подвергает операциям по удалению или восстановлению.

      Захоронение отходов – складирование отходов в местах, специально установленных для их безопасного хранения в течение неограниченного срока, без намерения их изъятия.

      Отходы, не подлежащие захоронению на полигонах, регламентированы Экологическим кодексом.

      Процесс захоронения отходов применяется только для тех отходов, которые не могут быть переработаны, применены повторно или переданы на дальнейшую переработку сторонним организациям. В справочнике по НДТ для захоронения рассматриваются основные виды отходов, образующиеся от производственной деятельности предприятий и жизнедеятельности человека такие как, ТБО, отходы энергетической, металлургической и химико-металлургической отраслей, отходы горнодобывающей деятельности и т.д.

      Захоронение опасных отходов разрешается в специально оборудованных местах при наличии экологического разрешения, а в случае захоронения опасных отходов в недрах, в том числе в необводненных подземных горных выработках шахт, рудников и транспортных уклонов – также согласования с уполномоченным органом в области недропользования.

      Осуществление других видов деятельности, не связанных с управлением опасными отходами, на территории, отведенной для их накопления или захоронения, запрещается.

      Под накоплением отходов понимается временное складирование отходов в специально установленных местах в течение определенных сроков, указанных ниже, осуществляемое в процессе образования отходов или дальнейшего управления ими до момента их окончательного восстановления или удаления.

      Места накопления отходов предназначены для:

      временного складирования отходов на месте образования на срок не более шести месяцев до даты их сбора (передачи специализированным организациям) или самостоятельного вывоза на объект, где данные отходы будут подвергнуты операциям по восстановлению или удалению;

      временного складирования неопасных отходов в процессе их сбора (в контейнерах, на перевалочных и сортировочных станциях), за исключением вышедших из эксплуатации транспортных средств и (или) самоходной сельскохозяйственной техники, на срок не более трех месяцев до даты их вывоза на объект, где данные отходы будут подвергнуты операциям по восстановлению или удалению;

      временного складирования отходов на объекте, где данные отходы будут подвергнуты операциям по удалению или восстановлению, на срок не более шести месяцев до направления их на восстановление или удаление;

      временного складирования отходов горнодобывающих и горноперерабатывающих производств, в том числе отходов металлургического и химико-металлургического производств, на месте их образования на срок не более двенадцати месяцев до даты их направления на восстановление или удаление.

      Под полигоном захоронения отходов понимается специально оборудованное место постоянного размещения отходов без намерения их изъятия, соответствующее экологическим, строительным и санитарно-эпидемиологическим требованиям [15].

      Каждый полигон должен быть отнесен к одному из следующих классов:

      1 класс – полигон опасных отходов;

      2 класс – полигон неопасных отходов;

      3 класс – полигон ТБО [19].

      Перечни видов отходов для захоронения на полигонах различных классов определяются уполномоченным органом в области охраны окружающей среды. Запрещается захоронение опасных отходов на полигонах неопасных отходов.

      Помимо полигонов опасных, неопасных и ТБО в справочник НДТ включены объекты долгосрочного хранения отходов горнодобывающей промышленности (вскрышная, вмещающая порода, пыль, бедная (некондиционная) руда, осадок механической очистки карьерных и шахтных вод, хвосты и шламы обогащения), объекты долгосрочного хранения отходов энергетических, металлургических и химико-металлургических производств.

1.2. Виды отходов и их образование. Обзор отрасли по захоронению отходов

      Полигоны

      В 2023 году общее количество полигонов для размещения ТБО составило 3 016 единиц, из них соответствующих экологическим и санитарным нормам – 624 единицы (21 %). Наименьшая доля полигонов, соответствующих экологическим и санитарно-эпидемиологическим требованиям, находится в Павлодарской – 5, Северо-Казахстанской – 11 и области Абай – 5 [4].

      Таблица 1.1. Информация по полигонам для захоронения ТБО в Казахстане за 2022 – 2023 годы

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      *- данные за 3 кв.2023 года.

      По данным Национального доклада "О состоянии окружающей среды и об использовании природных ресурсов Республики Казахстан за 2023 год".

      По данным отчета "Об обращении с коммунальными отходами в Республике Казахстан" Бюро национальной статистики Агентства по стратегическому планированию и реформам Республики Казахстан в 2024 году по Республике Казахстан объем утилизированных отходов составил 199 371 тонну, объем захороненных отходов на начало отчетного года составил 45 635 805 тонн, объем отходов, поступивших на захоронение в течение отчетного года 2 899 904 тонны, объем захороненных отходов на конец отчетного года 48 535 709 тонн.

      Ниже приведены сведения в разрезе областей.

      Таблица 1.2. Общий объем утилизированных и захороненных отходов за 2024 год, тонн

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      Таблица 1.3. Общий объем утилизированных и захороненных отходов, разделенных по видам за 2024 год, тонн

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      Согласно классификатору, отходы подразделяются на опасные или неопасные. Отдельные виды отходов могут быть определены одновременно как опасные и неопасные с присвоением различных кодов ("зеркальные" виды отходов) в зависимости от уровней концентрации содержащихся в них опасных веществ или степени влияния опасных характеристик вида отходов на жизнь и (или) здоровье людей и окружающую среду [3].

      Опасные отходы

      Опасными признаются отходы, обладающие одним или несколькими из следующих свойств:

      HP1 взрывоопасность;

      HP2 окислительные свойства;

      HP3 огнеопасность;

      HP4 раздражающее действие;

      НР5 специфическая системная токсичность (аспирационная токсичность на орган-мишень);

      HP6 острая токсичность;

      HP7 канцерогенность;

      HP8 разъедающее действие;

      НР9 инфекционные свойства;

      НР10 токсичность для деторождения;

      НР11 мутагенность;

      НР12 образование токсичных газов при контакте с водой, воздухом или кислотой;

      НР13 сенсибилизация;

      НР14 экотоксичность;

      НР15 способность проявлять опасные свойства, перечисленные выше, которые выделяются от первоначальных отходов косвенным образом;

      C16 стойкие органические загрязнители (СОЗ).

      Отходы, не обладающие ни одним из перечисленных в части первой настоящего пункта свойств и не представляющие непосредственной или потенциальной опасности для окружающей среды, жизни и (или) здоровья людей самостоятельно или в контакте с другими веществами, признаются неопасными отходами.

      Таблица 1.4. Движение опасных отходов в РК за 2022 – 2023 годы

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      По данным Национального доклада "О состоянии окружающей среды и об использовании природных ресурсов Республики Казахстан за 2023 год".

      Более 90 % образующихся опасных отходов производства составляют отходы добычи и обогащения полезных ископаемых: вскрышные породы открытой добычи, вмещающие породы шахтной добычи, шламы, хвосты обогащения (флотации). Основными источниками отходов добычи и обогащения являются угольная промышленность, черная металлургия, цветная металлургия, химическая промышленность (включая производство минеральных удобрений).

      Таблица 1.5. Виды опасных отходов с наибольшими объемами образования в 2023 году

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      Неопасные отходы

      Неопасными отходами признаются отходы, которые не обладают опасными свойствами и не представляют непосредственной или потенциальной опасности для окружающей среды, жизни и (или) здоровья людей самостоятельно или в контакте с другими веществами.

      В таблице 1.6 представлены данные по движению неопасных отходов за 2022-2023 годы.

      Таблица 1.6. Движение неопасных отходов в Республике Казахстан за 2022 – 2023 годы

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      По данным Национального доклада "О состоянии окружающей среды и об использовании природных ресурсов Республики Казахстан за 2023 год".

      Промышленные отходы

      Большую часть образующихся отходов занимают отходы промышленного производства, добычи и обогащения полезных ископаемых, к которым относятся вскрышные породы, шламы и хвосты обогащения.

      Большая часть предприятий тепло- и электроэнергетики (ТЭЦ, ГРЭС) работает на угольном топливе, вследствие чего образуются зола и золошлаки. Объемы отходов данного сектора занимают вторую ступень после добычи полезных ископаемых.

      Таблица 1.7. Виды неопасных отходов с наибольшими объемами образования за 2023 год

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      По данным Национального доклада "О состоянии окружающей среды и об использовании природных ресурсов Республики Казахстан за 2023 год".

      Золоотвал - инженерное сооружение, предназначенное для накопления и хранения золы, шлаков и других твердых отходов, образующихся при сжигании топлива на теплоэнергетических и промышленных предприятиях. Золоотвалы классифицируются как объекты захоронения отходов и подлежат регулированию в соответствии с экологическим законодательством РК.

      В таблицах представлены объемы образования и захоронения зольных остатков, котельных шлаков и зольной пыли, включая отходы от процессов совместного сжигания, образовавшиеся в РК в 2022 и 2023 годах. Приведенная информация отражает изменения по годам и позволяет проследить динамику образования указанных видов отходов. Источник данных - Национальный доклад о состоянии окружающей среды и использовании природных ресурсов Республики Казахстан за 2023 год.

      Таблица 1.8. Виды отходов с наибольшими объемами образования в 2022 году

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      Таблица 1.9. Виды отходов с наибольшими объемами образования в 2023 году

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      По данным Национального доклада "О состоянии окружающей среды и об использовании природных ресурсов Республики Казахстан за 2023 год".

      По информации территориальных департаментов экологии, практически во всех областях РК имеются хвостохранилища (за исключением Атырауской, Кызылординской и Западно-Казахстанской областей, городов Астана, Алматы и Шымкент).

      В Северо-Казахстанской области имеется 1 хвостохранилище, принадлежащее АО "TinOneMaining". Площадь территории составляет 140 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – на стадии строительства. Проектная мощность – 20 млн. м3.

      В области Жетісу имеется 1 хвостохранилище бывшего ТОО "Текелийский свинцово-цинковый комбинат". Состоит из 4-х площадок общей площадью 135 га, из которых одна площадка площадью 69,3 га находится на балансе ГУ "Отдел жилищно-коммунального хозяйства, пассажирского транспорта, автомобильных дорог и жилищной инспекции города Текели", а три площадки – на балансе ТОО "Текелийский горно-перерабатывающий комплекс".

      Статус – не эксплуатируется, эксплуатировалось с 1965 по 2012 годы. Текущее состояние – требует рекультивации. Общий объем накоплений составляет 34,5 млн. тонн, из которых 30,5 млн. тонн принадлежат государству, 4,0 млн. тонн – ТОО "Текелийский горно-перерабатывающий комплекс".

      В Костанайской области имеется 4 хвостохранилища.

      Хвостохранилище АО "ССГПО" (Костанайская область, г.Рудный), площадь территории составляет 16,7 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Общий объем накоплений составляет 399,64 млн. м3.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "Оркен", (Костанайская область, г.Лисаковск), площадь территории составляет 1,045 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Общий объем накоплений составляет 340 млн. тонн.

      АО "Варваринское имеет 2 хвостохранилища.

      Промплощадка №3, площадь территории составляет 189,7 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность – 45 135,3 тыс. м3.

      Хвостохранилище №2, площадь территории составляет 200 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – на стадии разработки проекта. Проектная мощность –45 млн. м3.

      В Актюбинской области имеется 2 хвостохранилища.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "Актюбинская медная компания", площадь территории составляет 241,9 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность выхода хвостов 5 000 тыс. тонн в год.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "Восход Хром", площадь территории составляет 55,5 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Общий объем накоплений составляет 2,7 млн. тонн.

      В Туркестанской области имеется 4 хвостохранилища.

      Хвостохранилище Ачисай, площадь территории составляет 62 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется, эксплуатировалось с 1935 по 1980 годы. Находится под управлением аппарата акима г.Кентау Туркестанской области. Текущее состояние – требует рекультивации. Общий объем накоплений составляет 6 960,5 тыс. м3.

      Хвостохранилище Хантаги, площадь территории составляет 35 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется, эксплуатировалось с 1933 по 1961 годы. Находится под управлением аппарата акима г.Кентау Туркестанской области. Текущее состояние – требует рекультивации. Общий объем накоплений составляет 119,3 тыс. м3.

      Хвостохранилище Байжансай, площадь территории составляет 29 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется, эксплуатировалось с 1940 по 1994 годы. Находится под управлением аппарата акима Байдыбекского района Туркестанской области. Текущее состояние – требует рекультивации. Общий объем накоплений составляет 4451,9 тыс. м3.

      Хвостохранилище Баялдыр, площадь территории составляет 332,3 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется, эксплуатировалось с 1961 по 1998 годы. Находится под управлением аппарата акима г.Кентау Туркестанской области. Текущее состояние – требует рекультивации. Общий объем накоплений составляет 94 744,2 тыс. м3.

      В Павлодарской области имеется 4 хвостохранилища.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "KAZ Minerals Bozshakol", площадь территории составляет 1 055 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность – 162 млн. м3.

      Хвостохранилище АО "Майкаинзолото", площадь территории составляет 88,3 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Общий объем накоплений составляет – 12 243,5 тыс. тонн.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "IBM Gоld", площадь территории составляет – 44,5 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – требует рекультивации. Проектная мощность – 50 000 м³.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "Fonet ErTai AK MINING", площадь территории составляет 31,42 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Емкость хвостохранилища по проекту 3,64 млн. м³.

      В Алматинской области имеется 2 хвостохранилища.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "Жетісу Вольфрамы", площадь территории составляет 116,81 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – на стадии строительства. Годовой выход хвостов обогащения 9 725,6 тыс. м³.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "МарумЖарГолд", площадь территории составляет 32,3 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – на стадии строительства. Проект принят из расчета производительности 22 тыс. тонн в год.

      В Акмолинской области имеется 13 хвостохранилищ, принадлежащих 7 предприятиям.

      ТОО "Казахалтын Technology" имеет 3 промплощадки в селах Аксу, Жолымбет и Бестобе.

      Аксу. Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – находится на стадии рекультивации. Проектная мощность – 5,64 млн. м3.

      Жолымбет. Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность – 8,0 млн. м3.

      Бестобе. Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – рекультивировано. Проектная мощность – 2,94 млн. м3.

      ТОО "Казахалтын" имеет 3 промплощадки в селах Аксу, Жолымбет и Бестобе.

      Аксу. Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Площадь составляет 0,95 км2.

      Жолымбет. Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – требует рекультивировации. Площадь составляет 1,08 км2.

      Бестобе. Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Общий объем накоплений составляет 7 189,2 тыс. м3.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "Аксу Technology", площадь территории составляет 130,3 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность – 22 млн. тонн.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "Степногорский горно-химический комбинат" состоит из 3-х площадок.

      Карта № 1. Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – находится на консервации. Проектная мощность – 21,9 млн. м3.

      Карта № 2. Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность – 25,4 млн. м3.

      Испарительная карта. Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – требует рекультивации. Проектная мощность – 15 млн. м3.

      Хвостохранилище АО "Степногорский подшипниковый завод", состоит из 2-х полигонов общей емкостью 111,6 тыс. м3.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Заполнено 64,0 тыс. м3.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "RG Gold", площадь территории составляет 125,59 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность – для складирования хвостов, образующихся при работе ЗИФ производительностью 8,0 млн. тонн руды в год.

      Хвостохранилище АО "Altyntau Kokshetau", состоит из 2-х площадок общей площадью 10,6 км2.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность –195,68 млн. м3.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "Мархит", площадь территории составляет 2500 м2.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – на стадии разработки. Проектная мощность – 22 275 м3.

      В Карагандинской области имеется 11 хвостохранилищ.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "Корпорация "Казахмыс", Карагайлинская обогатительная фабрика, площадь территории составляет 81 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность – 41 250 тыс. тонн.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "Корпорация "Казахмыс", Балхашская обогатительная фабрика, площадь территории составляет 18,75 км2.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Объем накопленных отходов – 419 261,975 тыс. м3.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "Корпорация "Казахмыс", Нурказганская обогатительная фабрика, площадь территории составляет 418,1 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Объем накопленных отходов – 9,056 млн. тонн.

      Хвостохранилище Стального департамента АО "Qarmet", площадь территории составляет – 260 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность – 18,4 млн. м3.

      АО "АК "Алтыналмас" имеет 2 хвостохранилища.

      Хвостохранилище № 1, площадь территории составляет 131,5 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Объем накопленных отходов – 12,193 млн. м3.

      Хвостохранилище № 2, площадь территории составляет 98 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Объем накопленных отходов 3,438 млн. м3.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "Nova Цинк", площадь территории составляет 282 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Объем накопленных отходов 12,9 млн. м3.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "Bapy Mining", проектный объем накопителя составляет 11,7 млн. м3 (32,175 млн. тонн).

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Объем накопленных отходов 10,3 млн. тонн.

      Хвостохранилище АО "Qarmet" (ЦОФ Восточная), площадь территории составляет 120 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Объем накопленных отходов 965,8 тыс. тонн.

      Хвостохранилище "Байтамская" АО "Qarmet" (ЦОФ Восточная), площадь территории составляет 28 325 м2.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется с 1996 года. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущие состояние – ожидает переработки. Проектный объем накопителя составляет 142,747 тыс. м3.

      Хвостохранилище "Старое" АО "Qarmet" (ЦОФ Восточная), площадь территории составляет 1 291,62 тыс. м2.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – проводятся работы по консервации и рекультивации. Проектный объем накопителя составляет 6 млн. м3.

      В Жамбылской области имеется 23 хвостохранилища, принадлежащие 6 предприятиям.

      АО "АК "Алтыналмас" имеет три хвостохранилища.

      Хвостохранилище золотоизвлекательной фабрики, площадь составляет 1 200 м2.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность 100 млн. тонн.

      Хвостохранилище обогатительной фабрики, площадь составляет 211 740 м2.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – используется как сырье для золотоизвлекательной фабрики. Проектная мощность 156 тыс. м3.

      Хвостохранилище Доре, площадь составляет 2,65 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – используется как сырье для золотоизвлекательной фабрики. Проектная мощность 100 тыс. м3.

      ТОО "Таразский металлургичекий завод" имеет 3 хвостохранилища.

      Накопитель котрельного молока, площадь территории составляет 26 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – требует рекультивации. Объем накопления составляет 9 390,88 тонн.

      Накопитель известкового шлама, состоит из 3-х карт, площадь территории составляет 13,9 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – требует рекультивации. Объем накопления составляет 137 628,225 тонн.

      Накопитель бедных фосфоросодержащих шлама, состоит из 4-х карт, площадь территории составляет 23 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – требует рекультивации. Объем накопления составляет 160 112,278 тонн.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "Корпорация "Казахмыс", площадь территории составляет 160 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Емкость 1-й очереди 17,2 млн. м3, емкость 2-й очереди - 20,4 млн. тонн.

      ТОО "ГПК "Казфосфат", имеет 4 хвостохранилища.

      Молодежный, площадь зеркала 74 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность 16 млн. м3.

      Аксай, площадь зеркала 24,5 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность 2,417 млн. м3.

      Площадка ДСФ, площадь зеркала 8,7 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность 41,8 тыс. м3.

      Площадка ЦОФ, площадь зеркала 10,66 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность 344 тыс. м3.

      Хвостохранилище ТФ ТОО "Казфосфат" "Минеральные удобрения", площадь территории составляет 47 га.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность 1 696 тыс. м3.

      ТОО "НДФЗ" имеет 11 хвостохранилищ.

      Накопитель котрельного молока № 1, площадь территории составляет 0,3 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – заполнены, будут использованы повторно. Объем накопления составляет 15,5 тыс. м3.

      Накопитель котрельного молока № 2, площадь территории составляет 0,3 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – заполнены, будут использованы повторно. Объем накопления составляет 15,5 тыс. м3.

      Накопитель котрельного молока №3, площадь территории составляет 2,3 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – заполнены, будут использованы повторно. Объем накопления составляет 35 тыс. м3.

      Накопитель котрельного молока № 4, площадь территории составляет 2,3 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – заполнены, будут использованы повторно. Объем накопления составляет 35 тыс. м3.

      Накопитель котрельного молока № 5, площадь территории составляет 1,7 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – используется для сброса после мойки электрофильтров. Объем накопления составляет 50 тыс. м3.

      Накопитель котрельного молока № 6, площадь территории составляет 1,7 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – используется для сброса после мойки электрофильтров. Объем накопления составляет 50 тыс. м3.

      Накопитель котрельного молока № 7, площадь территории составляет 3,4 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – находится на извлечении. Объем накопления составляет 100 тыс. м3.

      Накопитель котрельного молока № 8, площадь территории составляет 3,4 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – заполнены, будут использованы повторно. Объем накопления составляет 100 тыс. м3.

      Шламонакопитель № 1, площадь территории составляет 0,93 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – находится под слоем воды. Объем накопления составляет 37,5 тыс. м3.

      Шламонакопитель № 2, площадь территории составляет 1,48 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – находится под слоем воды. Объем накопления составляет 37,5 тыс. м3.

      Шламонакопитель № 4, площадь территории составляет 1,48 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – находится в резерве. Объем накопления составляет 20,5 тыс. м3.

      В Мангистауской области имеется 1 хвостохранилище, принадлежащее ГУ "Управление природных ресурсов и регулирования природопользования Мангистауской области", площадь территории составляет 7 720 га.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением ГУ "Управление природных ресурсов и регулирования природопользования Мангистауской области". Текущее состояние – требует рекультивации. Общий объем накоплений составляет 51,8 млн. тонн.

      В области Абай имеется 13 хвостохранилищ.

      АО "Финансово-инвестиционная корпорация "Алел" (рудник Суздаль) имеет 8 хвостохранилищ.

      Хвостохранилище хвостов флотации 5-я очередь, площадь территории составляет 218 872 м2.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность 1 092 789,51 м3.

      Хвостохранилище хвостов флотации 4-я очередь, площадь территории составляет 126 540 м2.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность 804 621,85 м3.

      Хвостохранилище хвостов флотации 3-я очередь 2-й этап, площадь территории составляет 143 820 м2.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – в обработке. Проектная мощность 791 976,17 м3.

      Хвостохранилище хвостов флотации 3-я очередь 1-й этап, площадь территории составляет 145 224 м2.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – в обработке. Проектная мощность 656 749,55 м3.

      Хвостохранилище хвостов флотации 3-я очередь 1-й этап, площадь территории составляет 105 000 м2.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – в обработке. Проектная мощность 268 487,68 м3.

      Хвостохранилище хвостов флотации 2-я очередь, площадь территории составляет 114 000 м2.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – в обработке. Проектная мощность 562 186,57 м3.

      Хвостохранилище хвостов флотации 1-я секция, площадь территории составляет 53 000 м2.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – в обработке. Проектная мощность 1 096 893,68 м3.

      Хвостохранилище хвостов флотации 1-я секция, площадь территории составляет 105 000 м2.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – в обработке. Проектная мощность 272 932,84 м3.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "KAZ Minerals Aktogay", проектная мощность 922 млн. м3.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Объем накопления 158 355 766 м3.

      АО "БАСТ" имеет 3 хвостохранилища.

      Хвостохранилище хвостов флотации, площадь территории составляет 0,113 км2.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – в обработке. Проектная мощность 442,809 тыс. м3.

      Хвостохранилище хвостов флотации карта № 4, площадь территории составляет 0,401724 км2.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность 319 тыс. м3.

      Хвостохранилище хвостов флотации карта № 4А, площадь территории составляет 0,06465 км2.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – в обработке. Проектная мощность 64,272 тыс. м3.

      Хвостохранилище ТОО "БГП", проектная мощность 14,983 млн. м3.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Объем накопления 6 239 131 м3.

      В области Улытау имеется 4 хвостохранилища.

      ТОО "Корпорация "Казахмыс", Производственное объединение "Жезгазганцветмет" имеет 2 хвостохранилища.

      Хвосторанилище № 3 Жезказганские обогатительные фабрики № 1, 2. Площадь территории составляет 1 100 км2.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Объем накопленных отходов 32 676,30358 тыс. тонн.

      Хвосторанилище Жезказганская обогатительная фабрика № 3. Площадь территории составляет 7,4 км2.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Объем накопленных отходов 63 500,10648 тыс. тонн.

      АО "Жайремский горно-обогатительный комбинат", Полиметаллическая обогатительная фабрика имеет 2 хвостохранилища.

      Хвостохранилище "Баритовая секция". Площадь территории составляет 0,32 км2.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Объем накопленных отходов 928,64 тыс. тонн.

      Хвостохранилище "Безбаритовая секция". Площадь территории составляет 2,56 км2.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Объем накопленных отходов 5 895,57 тыс. тонн.

      В Восточно-Казахстанской области имеется 10 хвостохранилищ.

      ТОО "ГМК Altyn MM" имеет 1 хвостохранилище. Площадь территории составляет 0,76 км2.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Объем накопления 591,975 тыс. тонн.

      ТОО "Сатпаевское горно-обогатительное предприятие" имеет 2 хвостохранилища.

      Хвостохранилище, площадь территории составляет 0,57 км2.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Общий объем накоплений составляет 1 420,734 м3.

      Хвостохранилище в отработанном пространстве карьера, площадь территории составляет 0,1188 км2.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Общий объем накоплений составляет 270,188 тыс. м3.

      ТОО "Казцинк", Николаевская обогатительная фабрика имеет 3 хвостохранилища.

      Зыряновское хвостохранилище, площадь территории составляет 3,3 км2.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Объем накопленных отходов 1 692,761 тыс. тонн.

      Чашинское хвостохранилище, площадь территории составляет 2,6 км2.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – проводятся рекультивационные работы. Объем накопленных отходов 55 103 тыс. м3.

      Таловское хвостохранилище, площадь территории составляет 4,4 м3.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность 2 774,432 м3.

      ТОО "BM Factory Project" имеет 1 хвостохранилище. Площадь территории составляет 1,172 км2.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – на стадии строительства. Проектная мощность – 21 715 000 м3.

      ТОО "Востокцветмет", Николаевская обогатительная фабрика имеет 2 хвостохранилища.

      Хвостохранилище, площадь территории составляет 1,458 км2.

      Статус – не эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – проводятся рекультивационные работы. Проектная мощность 33 986,047687 тыс. м3.

      Хвостохранилище в отработанном Николаевском карьере, площадь территории составляет 1,740 км2.

      Статус – эксплуатируется. Находится под управлением предприятия. Текущее состояние – соответствует проекту. Проектная мощность 3 286,196 тыс. м3.

      ТБО

      По данным Министерства экологии и природных ресурсов Республики Казахстан, ежегодно в Казахстане образуется около 4,5 млн. тонн ТБО.

      В 2023 году по данным Бюро национальной статистики АСПР РК образовано 4,1 млн. тонн, из них доля переработанных и утилизированных ТБО составила 23,9 % [4]. Основная доля приходится на отходы домашних хозяйств (65,6 %), 20,2 % составили отходы производства (приравненные к бытовым), 10,5 % – уличный мусор, 2,2 % – рыночные отходы.

      Таблица 1.10. Доля переработанных и утилизированных ТБО в Казахстане за 2018 – 2023 годы, %

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     According to the National Report on the State of the Environment and the Use of Natural Resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2023.

1.3. Auxiliary operations

     Auxiliary operations include waste sorting and treatment.

     Waste sorting refers to operations for separating waste by its types and (or) fractions, or sorting waste into its components, carried out separately or during waste accumulation before collection, during collection and (or) at facilities where waste is subjected to recovery or disposal operations.

     The problem of waste disposal has been and remains one of the most acute in the world, despite the fact that effective solutions already exist. Tons of waste enter the sorting lines every day, and this process is constant and continuous. If waste is not sorted and materials that can be reused are not extracted from them, there will be mountains of waste in landfills.

     Waste accepted for sorting will be considered acceptable as all solid waste that meets the following requirements:

     The waste will be transported by garbage trucks of the operating company or its subcontractors.;

     their temperature will not be 10 degrees higher than the air temperature, they will not be in a state of gorenje, or their humidity will not exceed 65 %;

     They will not pose a risk to people, machinery, or the environment.;

     They will not be in a compact form or in the form of blocks that cannot be broken by the available means.;

     they will not be included in the class of harmfulness unacceptable for a landfill. In case of doubt on the part of the personnel of the landfill, it is allowed not to unload the garbage truck until the circumstances are clarified.

     The technological scheme of the production process provides for the following complex:

     acceptance of solid waste at the landfill, accounting and entry control;

     reception of solid waste at the waste sorting complex, sorting of garbage and separation of useful fractions from the total mass of solid waste for their further use as secondary raw materials;

     solid waste disposal on the burial map, solid waste compaction and solid waste insulation with a layer of inert soil.

     The solid waste that has been weighed is delivered to the sorting line. Sorting is done manually. The sorting depth is at least 80%.

     Sorting is often carried out at waste sorting complexes, which are equipped with the necessary equipment and capabilities to isolate useful fractions from the total mass of solid waste. After sorting, paper, polymer, metal, and glass waste is packaged and sent to recycling facilities. Waste sorted and compressed into dense bales is no longer waste, but recyclable materials that can be used to produce new products. Waste after processing, with certain properties, can also be used as an energy source for local small industrial enterprises. Non-recoverable residues must be disposed of at the landfill.

     The remnants of MSW sorting ("tails") are pressed into briquettes and sent to the "tailings" storage area for possible further transfer to third-party organizations as recyclables or for burial on maps. The remains unsuitable for further use are sent for burial on maps.

     What kind of equipment will be used at a particular waste sorting facility will depend on several factors:

     estimated capacity and volumes of MSW per year;

     features of the garbage coming to the enterprise (solid waste, waste paper, scrap metal, plastic, etc.);

     the location of the complex;

     the number of employees.

     The correct calculation will make it possible to equip the waste sorting complex with such components for recycling, which will make it possible to isolate the maximum useful fractions suitable for further use.

     The main objectives of waste sorting are to reduce the load on landfills, reduce the harmful effects of decomposing or incinerated waste on the environment and the ability to reuse recycled materials, thereby saving natural resources.

     Waste treatment refers to operations in which waste is subjected to physical, thermal, chemical or biological influences that change the characteristics of waste in order to facilitate further management. Such operations are carried out separately or when waste accumulates prior to collection, during collection, and/or at facilities where waste is undergoing recovery or disposal operations.

     Waste is treated before its disposal or burial to reduce the harmful effects on environmental protection.

1.4. Environmental aspects of industrial and consumer waste disposal

     The main environmental aspects of industrial and consumer waste disposal may include:

     withdrawal of land resources or subsurface areas for the construction of landfills;

     handling of substances dangerous to the environment;

     the entry of pollutants into the geological environment: underground water bodies, rocks, soils;

     the entry of pollutants into surface water bodies and nearby territories;

     emissions of pollutants into the atmospheric air;

     indirect effects on flora and fauna;

     fire hazard (for waste with fire-hazardous properties or releasing flammable substances during storage);

     biological pollution of the environment (during the disposal of biodegradable waste, including food waste as part of solid waste, food production waste).

     In the post-operational period of landfills, the main environmental problems may include: effects on atmospheric air, underground and surface water bodies.

1.4.1. Emissions of pollutants into the atmospheric air

     In the thickness of solid household and industrial waste buried in landfills, a biothermic anaerobic decomposition process of the organic component of waste occurs under the influence of microflora.

     In the case of industrial waste, the formation of gases can occur not only as a result of biological processes, but also as a result of chemical reactions between waste components, especially if the waste contains organic residues, acids, alkalis and oxidizing agents, metal-containing compounds prone to corrosion.

     The final product is biogas, the bulk of which is methane and carbon dioxide. Along with these components, biogas contains water vapor, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, ammonia, hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide, phenol, and in small amounts other impurities that have harmful effects on human health and the environment.

     The quantitative and qualitative composition of biogas depends on many factors, including the climatic and geological conditions of the landfill location, the morphological and chemical composition of the imported waste, storage conditions (area, volume, depth of burial), waste moisture, density, etc., and is subject to clarification on a case-by-case basis, but not earlier. two years since the start of operation of the landfill.

     According to the generally accepted technology of waste disposal, planning and compaction of imported waste is provided, as well as regular insulation of working layers of waste with soil or inert material. In the initial period (about a year), the decomposition process of waste is characterized by its oxidation, which occurs in the upper layers of waste due to the oxygen in the air contained in the voids and penetrating from the atmosphere. Then, as the waste is naturally and mechanically compacted and isolated by soil, anaerobic processes intensify with the formation of biogas, which is the final product of biothermal anaerobic decomposition of the organic component of waste under the influence of microflora.

     Biogas is released into the atmosphere through the thickness of waste and insulating layers of soil, polluting it. If the storage conditions do not change, the process of anaerobic decomposition is stabilized with a constant specific volume release of biogas of almost the same gas composition (with the stability of the morphological composition of the waste).

     There are five phases of the decomposition process of the organic component of solid waste in landfills:

     The first phase is aerobic decomposition;

     The second phase is anaerobic decomposition without methane release (acid fermentation);

     The third phase is anaerobic decomposition with unstable release of methane (mixed fermentation);

     The fourth phase is anaerobic decomposition with constant release of methane.;

     The fifth phase is the attenuation of anaerobic processes.

     The first and second phases take place in the first 20 to 40 days from the moment of waste disposal, the duration of the third phase is up to 700 days. The duration of the fourth phase is determined by local climatic conditions and ranges from 10 (in the south) to 50 years (in the north) for different regions of the Republic of Kazakhstan, if storage conditions do not change.

     During the period of anaerobic decomposition of waste with constant release of methane and maximum biogas output (fourth phase), about 80% of the total amount of biogas is generated. The remaining 20% fall on the first three and final phases, during which only a part of the waste located at the landfill (the upper layers of waste and the part of organic matter that is slowly decomposed by microorganisms) participate in the formation of decomposition products.

The second phase is anaerobic decomposition without methane release (acid fermentation);

     The third phase is anaerobic decomposition with unstable release of methane (mixed fermentation);

     The fourth phase is anaerobic decomposition with constant release of methane.;

     The fifth phase is the attenuation of anaerobic processes.

     The first and second phases take place in the first 20 to 40 days from the moment of waste disposal, the duration of the third phase is up to 700 days. The duration of the fourth phase is determined by local climatic conditions and ranges from 10 (in the south) to 50 years (in the north) for different regions of the Republic of Kazakhstan, if storage conditions do not change.

     During the period of anaerobic decomposition of waste with constant release of methane and maximum biogas output (fourth phase), about 80% of the total amount of biogas is generated. The remaining 20% fall on the first three and final phases, during which only a part of the waste located at the landfill (the upper layers of waste and the part of organic matter that is slowly decomposed by microorganisms) participate in the formation of decomposition products.

     The quantitative and qualitative composition of the emissions from these phases depends on the composition of the waste determined during the survey of a particular landfill. Therefore, it is advisable to calculate biogas emissions for conditions of a stabilized waste decomposition process at maximum biogas output (fourth phase), taking into account the fact that stabilization of the gas release process occurs on average two years after waste disposal. This phase accounts for 80% of the biogas released. And the remaining 20% of emissions are accounted for by concentrations of biogas components determined by analyses (when analyzing selected biogas samples, it is not possible to differentiate which part of the total detectable concentration of a component is created by mixed fermentation, and which part is created by anaerobic decomposition with constant release of methane). The process of waste mineralization occurs during the first year – by 12 cm, the second year – by 21 cm, the third year – by 27 cm, etc. The flow of biogas from the landfill surface into the atmospheric air is uniform, without noticeable fluctuations in its quantitative and qualitative characteristics.

     To prevent and minimize emissions of pollutants into the atmospheric air during the operation phase of landfills and after decommissioning, the following methods of handling emissions into the atmosphere are used:

     preparation of waste for disposal, aimed at stabilizing the properties of waste;

     collection of gas generated in the body of waste disposal facilities and its dispersion in the atmosphere;

     collection of gas generated in the body of landfills and its incineration (using open/closed flare systems or specialized thermal decontamination plants);

     collection of gas generated in the body of landfills and its use (at a power plant);

     collection of gas generated in the body of landfills and its biofiltration;

     application of dust suppression methods;

     the use of other measures against dusting and evaporation of pollutants from the surface of the deposited waste.

     Pollutants are also released at landfills during the operation of motor vehicles and road equipment and boiler houses (if any), bulk work on the hazardous waste disposal map, transportation work on the hazardous waste disposal map, and waste movement. As a result of bulk and transportation operations, inorganic dust of 70-20% silicon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. The ignition of waste at different sites of the landfill is considered as accidental emissions.

     From long-term waste storage facilities of the mining industry, long-term waste storage facilities of energy metallurgical and chemical-metallurgical industries, the main share of pollutant emissions is inorganic dust: 70-20% of silicon dioxide (chamotte, cement, cement production dust - clay, shale, blast furnace slag, sand, clinker, ash, silica, coal ash from Kazakhstan deposits).

     In order to protect the atmospheric air and ensure normal working conditions for maintenance personnel, it is necessary to take measures to reduce emissions of pollutants. When implementing measures to reduce emissions, it is recommended:

     visual and instrumental monitoring of the atmospheric air condition at the complex;

     control over the exact observance of the technological regulations of production;

     minimizing the operation of equipment in the forced mode;

     dispersal of technological equipment operation;

     covering car bodies with awnings during transportation of dusty waste;

     carrying out technical inspections and preventive repairs of machines, mechanisms and vehicles, with monitoring of internal combustion engine exhaust emissions to check toxicity at least once a year;

     concentration of machinery and equipment involved in a single continuous technological process during operation;

     improvement of temporary storage sites for industrial and consumer waste, including the installation of containers for each waste that forms part of the company's production activities;

     the movement of vehicles only on regulated on-site roads;

     In order to reduce dust suppression, irrigation is carried out during waste unloading.

1.4.2. Effects on groundwater and surface waters, discharges of pollutants

     Several types of wastewater are generated at landfills.:

     Filtration waters are formed at waste disposal sites as a result of infiltration of atmospheric precipitation, release of extraction water and biochemical processes of waste decomposition.;

     on the territory of the economic zone there is surface runoff and household water.

     One of the main ways of spreading pollution from the waste disposal area is surface water draining from the area during heavy rains, and especially filtrate.

     In the body of the landfill, as a result of precipitation in the form of rain and snow, as well as as a result of the oxidation of organic matter, wastewater with extremely toxic properties is formed. This liquid is commonly referred to as filtrate. The toxicity of the filtrate is due to the fact that medical, industrial, biological and other types of waste enter the landfill among household (municipal) waste.

     Once in aquifers (especially in the absence of a waterproof landfill base), the filtrate turns groundwater unsuitable for drinking purposes.

     In a number of environmental areas, the task of cleaning the filtrate of landfills is put forward, since the drainage drains of landfills have increased concentrations of organic and mineral pollutants, heavy metals, and generally contain the most extensive list of polluting compounds.

     Experts identify three main sources of filtrate formation in landfills:

     atmospheric precipitation infiltrating through the body of the landfill in contact with the surface of the waste mass (the main source of filtrate formation);

     initial moisture content of certain types of waste;

     moisture released from the waste column as a result of biochemical processes accompanied by the formation of water during the anaerobic decomposition of their organic component.

     The drainage waters of landfills belong to highly polluted wastewater, are characterized by a high (hundreds of times higher than the maximum permissible concentration) content of toxic organic and inorganic substances, contain numerous components of the decomposition of organic compounds - intermediate and final products of decomposition processes of waste components, which determines the dark brown color and unpleasant odor of the filtrate waters. Such filtrates contain biologically difficult-to-oxidize organic matter, for example, organohalogen compounds (GOC), nitrogen-containing organic complexes, as a result of which they have very high values of chemical oxygen consumption (COD), which can reach up to 40,000 mg O2/l. Their sanitary and epidemiological danger is aggravated by the content of pathogenic microorganisms.

     Numerous studies have shown that the chemical and microbiological composition of landfill drainage waters and their volume depend on a number of factors: hydrogeological, climatic, topographic, morphology of solid waste, the stage of biochemical destruction and the life cycle of the landfill, storage conditions, pre-treatment of waste, etc. Throughout the entire life cycle of a landfill consisting of the following main stages: operational, reclamation, post–reclamation, assimilation - drainage waters are a source of contamination of surface and groundwater.

     The fact that low molecular weight acids predominate among the identified organic compounds indicates that aerobic degradation of organic substances occurs rapidly in the solid and liquid phases of household waste. There are processes of leaching and leaching of metal compounds from the waste mass. The transition of metal ions into the filtrate, both in aerobic and anaerobic conditions, is no more than 0.1%, while the concentration of metal ions in drainage waters can vary from 80 mg / l to 20 micrograms /l, depending on their initial content in solid waste.

     The main components of the filtrate can be combined into the following four classes:

     Basic elements and ions: calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium, ammonium, carbonates, sulfates, chlorides;

     scattered metals: manganese, chromium, nickel, lead, cadmium;

     various chemical compounds, the amount of which is usually measured by total organic carbon (TOC) and COD, individual organic substances such as phenol;

     microorganisms.

The volume of filtration (drainage) water, depending on the moisture content of the waste and climatic conditions, usually amounts to 25-50% of the mass of the stored waste. A significant difference between drainage waters and other types of wastewater is the unevenness of their accumulation throughout the year due to seasonal fluctuations in precipitation levels. The largest volume of filtrate is formed during the flood and autumn periods.

     Filtrate contaminated with toxic compounds cannot be discharged into a surface water body without thorough and multi-stage purification.

     The filtrate flowing out of the landfill body can be conditionally classified into "young", characteristic of the initial (acidic) stage, and "old", formed during the stabilization of waste biodegradation processes. The composition of pollutants in seeping waters is determined by the fermentation phase of the substances contained in MSW, and significantly depends on the time of their storage in landfills. The typical chemical composition of the filtrate obtained from studies of many landfills in the United States and Western European countries is shown in Table 1.11.

     Table 1.11. Typical chemical composition of the filtrate

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No. p / p

The chemical element

Content, mg/l

The chemical element

Content, mg/l

1

Iron

(200÷1700)

Sulfur

(25÷500)

2

Zinc

(1÷135)

Chlorine

(100÷2400)

3

Lead

(5÷130)

Sodium

(100÷3800)

4

Nitrogen

(20÷500)

     The generally accepted technology at landfills provides for a system of storm and drainage sewers, which includes ditches for collecting stormwater and the organization of a drainage water collection system from the entire landfill and economic zone. All household wastewater is collected and transferred on a contractual basis to specialized enterprises or is treated at the company's own facilities.

     In order to reduce pollution of surface and groundwater with harmful substances during the operation of the landfill, a set of measures should be provided to prevent the penetration of pollutants into water bodies.

     According to the results of hydrogeological studies, the levels and directions of groundwater flows are established, as well as observation points for wells and hydraulic posts on drains.

     At the initial stage, the design of landfills is based on the concept of minimizing environmental risk, according to which it is necessary to minimize the environmental impact on the environment, and in particular on water bodies. To do this, it is necessary:

     when choosing a site for solid waste, take into account the entire range of physical and geographical conditions.;

     take into account the climatic conditions of the area;

     take measures to minimize the removal of pollutants into water bodies;

     to provide a complex of facilities for the collection of contaminated wastewater from the entire landfill area, their purification and disposal;

     to ensure the insulation of the layers of waste being laid and the installation of an external waterproof coating of the landfill with the reclamation of its surface;

     to carry out effective degassing of the waste array at all stages of the landfill's existence;

     provide for environmental monitoring.

     Protection of water bodies in the zone of potential influence of solid waste is carried out using a ground-film screen, the main water-resistant element of which is a polyethylene film. To preserve the insulating properties of the screen in case of accidental damage to the film, a layer of clay soil with a thickness of at least 1 m is used.

     The screening efficiency is estimated by the ratio of the volume of filtration prevented by the screen to the volume that would exist in the absence of the screen. The screening efficiency reaches 70% with a film thickness of 0.2 mm and 90% with a film thickness of 1 mm.

     The negative impact of residual filtration on the condition of groundwater is reduced if there is a sufficiently powerful natural geochemical barrier between the shield and the aquifer closest to it, in particular, the presence of clay rocks at the base of the landfill, which can effectively prevent the removal of landfill pollutants into the groundwater horizons. Such a barrier simultaneously performs the functions of a natural anti-filtration screen, which reduces the total volume of contaminated wastewater and a natural sorption and ion exchange filter, which retains a significant part of the pollutants from the wastewater filtered through it. To maximize the protective effect of the geochemical barrier, preference is given to sites with deep groundwater.

     Protection of water bodies from pollution by harmful substances is usually solved with the help of anti-filtration protection, i.e. special screens. This protection provides for:

     minimizing the volume of landfill filtrate formation due to the phased development of the territory and the installation of a waterproof coating along the outer slopes and the surface of the waste array;

     reduction of filtration leaks through the landfill base due to the installation of an artificial barrier (anti-filtration screen) and a drainage system that ensures the removal of filtrate from the landfill;

     reducing the discharge of pollutants into water bodies by filtration through an artificial barrier by maximizing the use of a natural (natural) geochemical barrier. One of the main environmental risks associated with waste disposal is contamination of groundwater and surface waters with filtrate formed as a result of filtration of atmospheric precipitation and liquid released from waste. The filtrate can contain a wide range of pollutants: heavy metals, biogenic elements, organic compounds, including persistent and toxic ones, as well as pathogenic microorganisms. The ingress of these substances into water bodies can lead to degradation of aquatic ecosystems and risks to public health.

     As a result of the activities of mining, metallurgical, chemical and other industries, hazardous wastes are formed, characterized by high toxicity, resistance and potential for migration into the environment.

     In the process of ore dressing in the mining and metallurgical industry, tailings, slurries and pulps containing heavy metals (for example, lead, cadmium, mercury, arsenic), sulfides, as well as residues of flotation reagents are formed. Upon contact with atmospheric precipitation, such waste can form acid mine drainage (AMD), saturated with dissolved metals and sulfates, which leads to pollution of rivers and underground reservoirs.

     Waste from metallurgical industries (slags, slurries, dusts) may contain compounds of lead, copper, zinc, chromium, as well as residues of fluxes and technological reagents. The infiltration of water through such waste contributes to the release of toxic ions into the environment, creating a threat of contamination of both waters and soils.

     Chemical waste includes a wide range of organic and inorganic substances, including phenols, formaldehyde, ammonia, cyanides, as well as acidic or alkaline components. Discharges and filtrate from the disposal of such waste, in the absence of reliable isolation, can create large-scale foci of water pollution that are difficult to eliminate.

     To minimize the risk of contamination of water bodies at waste disposal facilities, engineering barrier systems are used, the main function of which is to seal the base and side surfaces of the landfill. Geomembrane, which is a synthetic material with high waterproofing properties, is most widely used in such systems.

     The geomembrane serves as a key element of the protective shield and is significantly superior to traditional materials such as polyethylene film in terms of strength and performance. The most commonly used materials are high-density polyethylene (HDPE), linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and synthetic rubbers (for example, EPDM).

     The advantages of geomembranes include:

     high resistance to chemicals contained in waste and infiltrate;

     long service life (up to 100 years with proper installation and operation);

     low permeability to liquids and gases;

     UV resistance (depending on the type of material);

     It is widely used in the international practice of landfill construction for hazardous and industrial waste.

     As a rule, geomembrane is used as part of a multilayer insulation system, including:

     compacted mineral screen (clay or bentonite);

     drainage layers for collecting infiltrate;

     protective and separation geotextiles;

     monitoring systems for possible leaks.

     Thus, the use of geomembranes significantly reduces the likelihood of contamination of water resources and is considered as the best available technique in the field of waterproofing waste disposal facilities, especially dangerous ones.

1.4.3. Impact on land resources

     In case of violation of hygienic requirements during waste disposal, the soils are polluted first of all. Household and industrial waste receives heavy metals and organic compounds, which can cause the migration of toxic substances into contact media, especially into groundwater.

     Landfills can also have a negative impact on the soil cover due to the release of toxic substances and organic compounds during the decomposition of waste. The waste located at the landfill may contain toxic and dangerous substances, which, if released into the water, can lead to water pollution and a decrease in the quality of water resources. In addition, during waste processing at the landfill, the formation of flushable substances such as pesticides, herbicides, heavy metals and other dangerous substances can occur, which can penetrate into the soil and further enter groundwater, lakes, rivers and other water bodies.

During the construction of landfills, excavators and construction equipment are required, which leads to a violation of the soil cover. In addition, impacts such as fuel and lubricants spills from vehicles and machinery during waste management, soil erosion and sediment formation are possible. The impact can be mitigated to a minor extent by applying best construction practices and appropriate mitigation measures.

     Mitigation measures include:

     removing the topsoil and storing it in separate collars;

     proper maintenance of transport and construction equipment;

     fuel storage in sealed tanks mounted on an impermeable surface;

     maintenance, refueling and cleaning of vehicles and equipment in workshops with an adequate leak prevention system;

     the application of appropriate erosion protection measures, such as silt screens.

     During the operation phase of landfills, potential impacts are associated with soil contamination as a result of accidental oil product spills. Mitigation measures:

     in case of accidental fuel and lubricants spills, appropriate measures should be taken to minimize impacts (immediate localization of the spill, use of sorbents, mechanical cleaning, degradation of contaminated sites, pollution monitoring, land restoration);

     Regular leakproofness checks should be carried out.

     The protection of the land resources of the territories where landfills are located consists in carrying out a certain set of engineering, geological, environmental and construction measures that allow, to a certain extent, to assess and reduce the level of negative impact exerted by landfills on the environment.

     Land reclamation, prevention or purification of harmful emissions into the soil are used as measures to protect soils and land resources. When carrying out planning work, the soil layer suitable for subsequent use must first be removed and stored in specially designated areas. In the future, this soil will be used for landscaping the site.

1.5. Energy consumption

     Landfill remains one of the most common ways to dispose of waste. Waste disposal includes a number of processes that require energy consumption, depending on the landfill design, methods of disposal of filtrate and landfill gas. This section discusses the main aspects of energy consumption.

     The main sources of energy consumption in waste disposal are electric energy and fuel.

     Electricity is an important energy resource that ensures the functioning of all technological processes in landfills of various types, including landfills for solid waste, industrial, construction, and biological waste.

     Electricity is actively used to operate various methods to ensure waste treatment and disposal, such as crushers, which are used to crush large-sized waste, reducing its volume for further processing and burial, compactors for pressing waste, pumps that pump liquid from drainage channels, preventing flooding of the landfill and reducing the risk of environmental pollution.

     There are landfills in Kazakhstan that do not consume significant amounts of energy. Most old and small landfills operate according to a simplified scheme – waste is simply unloaded, leveled and compacted with bulldozers and rollers. In most outdated landfills, the equipment operates in a limited mode. There are no crushers, conveyors, automatic sorting lines.

     The complete absence of energy consumption is typical only for natural and conservative landfills. Modern landfills are gradually moving towards mechanized processes and energy-efficient solutions, but this process is uneven due to economic and technological constraints.

     In general, electric energy is an important resource in waste disposal, accounting for 40-60% of the total energy consumption of landfills.

     Diesel fuel is one of the main sources of energy in landfills. It is used to operate specialized equipment and provide autonomous generation in conditions of limited power supply.

     Most of the specialized equipment is equipped with diesel engines, which are widely used in landfills for the processes of unloading, moving and compacting waste. The main types of equipment running on diesel fuel are as follows:

     Bulldozers are used for unloading waste on the landfill map, working formation of layers and filling of waste with inert materials (for example, soil);

     Excavators are used for digging ditches, installing protective barriers, installing drainage systems and removing a storage filter.;

     dump trucks – ensure the transportation of garbage inside the landfill, the movement of soil used to fill the layers of garbage.;

     Front loaders are involved in the transportation of bulk materials, including crushers, sorting and waste treatment.;

     Garbage compactors are special machines with massive metal mechanisms designed to compress waste and manage its volume, which makes it possible to efficiently use the landfill area and extend its service life.

     Significant amounts of diesel fuel are required for the operation of this equipment, as the machines operate in conditions of constant demand and difficult working conditions.

     Autonomous diesel generators are widely used in landfills where there is no access to centralized sources of electricity. They provide electric power to the facilities. The use of diesel generators is especially important for temporary and remote landfills where it is economically impractical to build stationary power lines.

     Fuel accounts for about 30-50% of the total energy consumption of the landfill and is one of the main sources of energy, providing specialized machinery, waste transportation and autonomous power supply.

     With the support of the Department of Environmental Protection and Nature Management, Astana Eco Landfill LLP and PRG LLP have developed and installed a pilot industrial sample of a landfill gas processing system to generate electricity. The development was based on the experience of foreign countries. The landfill uses a landfill gas disposal system to generate electricity. The landfill is equipped with a landfill gas degassing system, which allows collecting methane generated from waste and using it to generate heat and electricity [8].

     Landfill gas can be used in cogeneration plants to generate heat and electricity. The average calorific value of landfill gas is 16-20 MJ/m3. The 1 MW cogeneration plant is capable of processing 500-1000 m3 of landfill gas per hour. Using landfill gas to generate electricity can reduce the total cost of landfill energy consumption by 30% and reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 60-80%.

     In general, the use of landfill gas for energy generation is becoming increasingly relevant in Kazakhstan, as it helps not only to improve the environmental situation, but also to ensure more efficient use of energy at landfills.

     Currently, there are a large number of landfills in Kazakhstan, but most of them are outdated and do not comply with modern environmental standards. Many of them do not ensure the stability of degassing, drainage or filtration. This leads to pollution of the environment, including soil, groundwater and reservoirs, as well as a decrease in the efficiency of waste disposal.

     Based on the conducted comprehensive technological audits and analysis of data obtained as a result of technological and energy surveys, it has been established that the main direction of energy consumption in the waste disposal process is electricity used to ensure the functioning of engineering infrastructure systems, operation of technological equipment and fuel used for transportation and redistribution of waste on the territory of the landfill using specialized technicians. Thus, the greatest specific fuel and energy consumption is associated with the movement of waste and the operation of heavy machinery. This underlines the expediency of implementing measures aimed at optimizing routes within the landfill, increasing the energy efficiency of the fleet, as well as modernizing engineering systems using energy-efficient equipment.

     Given the volume of waste generated in Kazakhstan, there is significant potential for upgrading existing technologies and reducing energy consumption. The introduction of more efficient and environmentally friendly solutions will not only reduce operating costs, but also minimize the negative impact on the environment.

1.6. Factors of physical impact

     Noise and vibration are common problems, and their sources are found at almost all stages of the technological process. The industrial noise emitted by the installation into the environment is a negative impact factor with medical, social and economic aspects.

     Noise is a collection of sounds of varying intensity and frequency, randomly varying over time, occurring in industrial conditions and causing unpleasant sensations and objective changes in organs and systems among workers.

Noise is a collection of sounds of varying intensity and frequency, randomly varying over time, occurring in industrial conditions and causing unpleasant sensations and objective changes in organs and systems among workers.

     Noise is estimated in the frequency range from 45 to 11,000 Hz. In acoustic measurements, sound pressure levels are determined within frequency bands equal to an octave (a frequency band whose ratio of the upper boundary frequency to the lower is 2), half an octave, or 1/3 of an octave [9].

     To characterize the noise intensity, a measuring system has been adopted that takes into account the approximate logarithmic relationship between irritation and auditory perception on the bel (or decibel–Db) scale. On this scale, each subsequent level of sound intensity is 10 times higher than the previous one.

     Noise and vibration can be measured in several ways, but, as a rule, they are specific to each technological process, while it is necessary to take into account the frequency of sound and the location of settlements from the production site.

     Prolonged exposure to noise and vibrations can damage a person's hearing aid, depress the central nervous system, cause changes in respiratory rate and pulse, contribute to metabolic disorders, cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and can lead to occupational diseases. Therefore, wastewater treatment plants should take measures and implement measures to reduce the impact of workplace noise (industrial noise) to a minimum, as well as noise at the plant and quarry boundaries (environmental noise), which may affect neighboring activities (residential areas, public buildings, other industrial and commercial settlements etc.) to a minimum value.

     Proper maintenance helps to prevent equipment from unbalancing, such as fans and pumps. The connections between the equipment can be specially designed to prevent or minimize noise transmission. Common methods of noise reduction include the use of embankments to shield the noise source; the use of sound-absorbing structures for installations or components that emit noise; the use of anti-vibration supports and connectors for equipment; careful adjustment of installations that emit noise; changing the frequency of sound.

1.7. Emergency preparedness and response

     Landfill fire management is another important aspect that requires attention, especially when operating a landfill gas management system, which can contribute to the occurrence, spread or aggravation of fires. Fires can occur for various reasons and in different areas of the landfill, including the operation of the landfill gas system, the placement of combustible waste and chemical reactions inside the landfill.

     Effective fire management includes understanding their causes as part of a prevention strategy, as well as developing measures to eliminate them if they occur. It is mandatory for each landfill to develop a fire management plan, which, in the presence of drainage systems for the discharge and disposal of landfill gas, separately takes into account the risks associated with the operation of the landfill gas management system.

     At industrial waste disposal sites, emergency preparedness and response requires consideration of specific factors related to the nature of waste. Unlike landfills, there are often substances with high chemical activity that can enter into spontaneous exothermic reactions, release toxic gases, or pose a risk of ignition upon contact with water or air. Fires at such facilities can occur due to spontaneous combustion of pyrophoric substances, leaks of volatile organic compounds, and unauthorized mixing of chemically incompatible waste. In this regard, the response plan should include specialized measures: constant monitoring of temperature and pressure in the landfill body, the use of inert materials for filling, exclusion of moisture access to water-reactive components, organization of ventilation and exhaust systems. Special attention is paid to the training of personnel, equipping with personal protective equipment, the availability of sorbents, neutralizing reagents and emergency tanks. All measures should be aimed at eliminating emissions of hazardous substances into the environment and ensuring the safety of employees, as well as covering scenarios of both local incidents and large-scale emergencies.

     Landfill fires pose a threat to human health and safety, as well as to the landfill gas management system itself due to the dangerous conditions they create. Burning waste can release toxic gases. In addition, fires cause subsidence of the ground, forming sinkholes that pose a danger to landfill workers. If the fire reaches the landfill gas system equipment, it can also lead to dangerous situations, for example, overheating of the equipment or its malfunction.

     Landfill fires pose significant risks to the environment. They can lead to the release of toxic substances into the atmosphere; uncontrolled combustion of halogen-containing compounds often leads to the formation of dioxins and furans.

     Another risk is damage to landfill gas system equipment. A fire can disable expensive components, leading to system failures and the need to repair the landfill infrastructure. One of the first fire response measures is to shut down the landfill gas collection system in the part of the landfill where the fire has occurred or there is a risk of it.

     Although it may seem contradictory, disabling the gas collection system is one of the key fire extinguishing measures, as it helps to create conditions under which further gorenje becomes impossible.

     To prevent soil contamination, it is planned to dump earth structures (maps), arrange the site with paved roads and access roads. With temporary storage of solid waste, overflowing containers may cause contamination of container sites and runoff of contaminated wastewater from them during precipitation. To prevent soil contamination, a hard coating of container sites is provided. The company carries out accounting in case of emergencies and related consequences. The company notifies the monitoring services in the field of environmental protection about the accidents that have occurred.

     When landfill gas accumulates, fire and explosive conditions are formed both at the landfills themselves and in nearby buildings and structures. Spontaneous combustion or unauthorized arson of waste generates toxic substances, including dioxins, which are super-ecotoxicants. There are also many cases of poisoning during maintenance of buried utility lines near landfills.

     An emergency preparedness and response plan and procedures should be provided to protect personnel and the public prior to operation, based on calculations using an officially recognized method or combination of environmental risk assessment methods. The plan and procedures should be provided to all employees, and employees should be made aware. In addition, employees should receive basic, task-oriented training and professional development on a regular basis.

     There should be an emergency preparedness and response plan in place, ensuring appropriate measures to manage possible emergencies at the facility and coordinate responses outside the facility. This plan should cover at least the following:

     relevant legislation;

     list of responsible, accountable managers with authority in emergency situations;

     the emergency management system, including the hierarchy of subordination;

     clearly defined criteria and boundaries of the emergency situation;

     emergency notification list (internal and third-party);

     Staff responsibilities;

     a map of the facility, including the location of dangerous locations and critical infrastructure facilities;

     available emergency rescue equipment and its location;

     general emergency response procedures;

     fire safety measures;

     explosion prevention and containment measures;

     fire control measures;

     emergency medical care measures;

     environmental emergency measures (i.e. unacceptable leaks of filtrate or biogas);

     spill containment measures;

     gas release response;

     measures in case of geotechnical instability;

     measures to prevent and eliminate the consequences of road accidents involving vehicles;

     training requirements and plan;

     emergency procedures.

     In the event of an incident or accident that has a significant impact on the environment, the operator ensures:

     immediate notification of the authorized body in the field of environmental protection;

     taking measures to limit environmental impacts and to prevent potential incidents or accidents.

     Landfills should be operated in such a way as to reduce the risk of fires. The following requirements must be met:

     All landfills must meet the requirements for daily and intermediate coating, which determine the placement and compaction of waste in cells and insulation using an inert daily and intermediate coating of a certain thickness.

All landfills must meet the requirements for daily and intermediate coating, which determine the placement and compaction of waste in cells and insulation using an inert daily and intermediate coating of a certain thickness.

     Fire-fighting openings with a width of at least 15 m, free from trees, shrubs, tall grass and other combustible materials, should be provided within the buffer zone at a distance of 20 m from the landfill site.

     The waste disposal site must have year-round and direct access to a water supply source that provides a constant supply of water for fire extinguishing purposes exceeding 4,000 liters per minute, or to suitable alternative fire extinguishing equipment specified in the fire safety plan.

     All waste disposal equipment that will operate at the landfill site must be equipped with fire extinguishing equipment. In the event of an unauthorized fire (including any smoldering fire), landfill personnel must immediately make all reasonable efforts to extinguish the fire, including reporting the fire to the fire department with jurisdictional responsibility.

     Measures aimed at the safe disposal of waste with fire-hazardous properties or releasing flammable substances during storage:

     pre-sorting and processing of waste containing increased amounts of combustible components (oil-containing, etc.);

     keeping waste in a moistened state to reduce the likelihood of spontaneous combustion;

     limiting waste contact with fire-causing factors;

     provision of water and sand reserves for fire extinguishing at waste disposal facilities;

     ensuring the use of inert insulating materials for filling layers of waste placed in waste disposal facilities.

2. Methodology for determining the best available techniques

     The procedure for determining the BAT for the scope of this BAT handbook is organized by the NAO "International Center for Green Technologies and Investment Projects" represented by the BAT Bureau (hereinafter referred to as the Center) and the TRG for the development of the BAT handbook "Waste Disposal" in accordance with the provisions of the Rules [2].

     This procedure takes into account international practices and approaches to the definition of BAT, including those based on the EU Reference Document on Economics and environmental impacts on various components of the environment, the EU Reference Document on Economics and Cross-Media Effects, as well as the Guidelines for the Definition of BAT and the establishment of Environmental Performance Levels to meet the conditions obtaining environmental permits based on BAT "Best Available Techniques for Preventing and Controlling Industrial Pollution, Activity 4: Guidance Document on Determining BAT, BAT-associated Environmental Performance Levels and BAT-based Permit Conditions" [10].

2.1. Determination, principles of BAT selection

     The definition of BAT is based on principles and criteria in accordance with the requirements of the Environmental Code, as well as on compliance with the sequence of actions of the TRG.:

     1) identification of key environmental issues for the industry, taking into account the marker pollutants of emissions.

     A list of marker substances has been defined for the technological process (for more detailed information, see section 6 of this BAT handbook).

     The method of determining the list of marker pollutants was based primarily on the study of design, technological documentation and information obtained during the CTA conducted by enterprises on the scope of this BAT handbook.

     From the list of pollutants present in the emissions of the main sources of pollution, a list of marker substances was determined separately for each technological process, provided they meet the following characteristics:

     the substance is characteristic of the technological process under consideration (substances justified in the design and technological documentation);

     The substance has a significant impact on the environment and/or public health, including those with high toxicity, proven carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic properties, cumulative effect, as well as substances related to persistent organic pollutants.;

     2) identification and description of candidate techniques aimed at a comprehensive solution to the environmental problems of the industry.

     When forming the list of candidate techniques, technologies, methods, methods, processes, practices, approaches and solutions were considered that are aimed at comprehensively solving environmental problems in the field of application of this BAT handbook, from among those available in the Republic of Kazakhstan (identified as a result of CT) and in international documents in the field of BAT, as a result of which a list was determined (number) of candidate technicians listed in section 5.

     For each candidate technique, a technological description and considerations regarding the technical applicability of the candidate techniques are provided; environmental indicators and potential benefits from the introduction of the candidate technique; economic indicators, potential cross-media effects and necessary conditions;

     3) analysis and comparison of candidate techniques in accordance with indicators of technical applicability, environmental performance and economic accessibility.

     The candidate techniques considered as NDT were evaluated in the following order:

     evaluation of the candidate technique according to the parameters of technological applicability;

     evaluation of the candidate technique according to the parameters of environmental performance.

     An analysis of the environmental effect of the introduction of candidate techniques was carried out, expressed in quantitative terms (unit of measurement or percentage of reduction/increase), in relation to the following indicators:

     atmospheric air: prevention and/or reduction of emissions;

     Water consumption: reduction of total water consumption;

     wastewater: prevention and/or reduction of discharges;

     soil, subsoil, groundwater: prevention and (or) reduction of the impact on the components of the natural environment;

     waste: prevention and/or reduction of production waste generation/accumulation and/or its recycling, waste recovery, energy waste management and waste disposal;

     consumption of raw materials: reduction of consumption, substitution with alternative materials and (or) production and consumption waste;

     energy consumption: reduction of consumption of energy and fuel resources; use of alternative energy sources; possibility of regeneration and recycling of substances and heat recovery; reduction of consumption of electric and thermal energy for own needs;

     noise, vibration, reduced physical impact.

     The absence or presence of cross-media effects was also taken into account.

     The compliance or non-compliance of the candidate technique with each of the above indicators was based on information obtained during the CTA.

     1. Evaluation of the candidate equipment according to the parameters of economic accessibility.

     An assessment of the economic efficiency of the candidate equipment is not mandatory, however, according to the decision of the majority of the members of the TRG, the economic assessment of the NDT was carried out by the members of the TRG - representatives of industrial enterprises in relation to some techniques implemented and operated in well–functioning industrial installations/plants.

     The fact of industrial implementation was established as a result of the analysis of the information revealed as a result of the CTA.

     2. Determination of technological indicators related to the use of BAT.

     The determination of emission levels and other technological indicators related to the use of BAT is in most cases used in relation to techniques that reduce the negative anthropogenic impact and control pollution at the final stage of the production process.

     Thus, the technological indicators related to the use of BAT were determined, among other things, taking into account the levels of national indicators, which is confirmed by the reports of the conducted CTAs.

2.2. Criteria for attributing techniques to NDT

     In accordance with paragraph 3 of Article 113 of the Environmental Code, the criteria for determining BAT are:

     1) using low-waste technology;

     2) use of less dangerous substances;

     3) facilitating the recovery and recycling of substances generated and used in the technological process, as well as waste, as applicable;

     4) Comparability of processes, devices and operational methods successfully tested at the industrial level;

     5) Technological breakthroughs and changes in scientific knowledge;

     6) the nature, impact and volume of the relevant emissions into the environment;

     7) dates of commissioning for new and existing facilities;

     8) the length of time required for the implementation of BAT;

     9) consumption level and properties of raw materials and resources (including water) used in processes, and energy efficiency;

     10) the need to prevent or minimize the overall negative impact of emissions on the environment and risks to the environment;

     11) the need to prevent accidents and minimize negative consequences for the environment;

     12) information published by international organizations;

     13) industrial implementation at two or more facilities in the Republic of Kazakhstan or abroad.

2.3. Economic aspects of BAT implementation

2.3.1. Approaches to the economic assessment of BAT

BAT, the procedure for their application, advantages and disadvantages, as a rule, are widely known in the waste disposal industry. BAT is considered acceptable if there is clear evidence/examples of the results of its successful operation. Thus, the EU countries, when determining BAT, take into account only technologies that have already been put into commercial operation, and the environmental effectiveness of which has been practically confirmed.

     A detailed economic analysis of the use of BAT is an additional criterion for deciding on the possibility or rejection of the introduction of BAT when there are sufficient grounds to believe that BAT is excessively expensive.

     According to the results of the general ecological and economic assessment, BAT can be ranked as:

     cost–effective - when technology reduces costs, saves money and/or has a negligible effect on the cost of services and brings tangible environmental benefits.;

     cost–effective under certain conditions - when technology leads to increased costs, but the additional costs are considered acceptable for the economic conditions of the enterprise and are in reasonable proportion to the environmental benefits received.;

     economically inefficient – when technology leads to increased costs and additional costs are not considered acceptable for the economic conditions of the enterprise or are disproportionate to the environmental benefits received.

     When choosing between several alternative bats, the specific indicators of the environmental and economic efficiency of BATS are compared to determine the least expensive ones.

     In general, the transition to BAT principles should be carried out on economically acceptable terms for the enterprise, namely: not to reduce its economic efficiency and not to critically worsen its financial condition in the forecast period. The overall economic efficiency and feasibility of BAT implementation are determined by the financial and economic conditions of a particular enterprise.

     The economic assessment of BAT should also take into account the issues of the possibility of implementing BAT projects in the industry as a whole, taking into account the maintenance of the current level of efficiency and profitability in the long, medium and short term. BAT can be recognized as applicable at the industry level if the possibility of its implementation, taking into account the overall financial costs and environmental benefits, exists on a scale sufficient for widespread adoption in the industry.

     For BATS that require significant capital investments, a reasonable balance is determined between the civil society's request for environmental protection measures to reduce the negative impact on the environment and human health and the investment capabilities of the facility operator. At the same time, the operator of the facility is responsible for proving the conditions under which a special regime should be applied to the BAT implementation process.

2.3.2. Methods of economic assessment of BAT

     The economic assessment of the effectiveness of BAT implementation can be carried out in various ways:

     on the investment validity of costs;

     Cost-benefit analysis;

     in relation to costs in relation to a number of key performance indicators: turnover, operating profit, value added, and more (if relevant data is available);

     in terms of the ratio of costs and the achieved environmental effect.

     Each of the methods of economic assessment reflects the result of the implementation of environmental protection measures for various aspects of the production, economic and environmental activities of the enterprise and can serve as an additional source of decision-making on BAT. The operator of the facility uses the most appropriate method of economic assessment of BAT, taking into account industry and production specifics, or a combination of both.

2.3.3. Investment reasonableness of costs

     It should be understood that BATS (especially environmental protection) are not always the subject of commercial activities for profit, and discounted cash flows may have negative values during the investment analysis of a BAT implementation project.

     The applicability of BAT is determined, among other things, by the investment feasibility of technology and equipment costs, the cost of capital, the payback period, the prices of raw materials and other factors.

     From the point of view of return on investment, BAT can be estimated as:

     profitable – in case of receiving additional income from their sale or saving financial resources.;

     unprofitable in terms of revenue, but acceptable in terms of current or future financial condition;

     unprofitable and excessive in their financial costs;

     achieving the required environmental performance compared to costs;

     having unreasonably high costs compared to the achieved environmental effect.

2.3.4. Cost-benefit analysis

     In addition to the achieved environmental effect, the use of BAT in many cases reduces the consumption of physical natural resources – raw materials, fuel, electricity, heat, water, etc., represented in monetary terms. In this case, BAT can be evaluated in terms of the benefits obtained from its application compared to the costs incurred.

     In addition, the implementation of BAT at landfills may result in additional sources of income, such as the use of degassing systems with the capture and subsequent disposal or sale of landfill gas, the use of filtrate after appropriate purification for technical needs, as well as the sorting and selection of secondary resources from the incoming waste stream with their subsequent sale or recycling.

     The overall economic benefits of using BAT may exceed the costs and become an incentive factor for its implementation.

2.3.5. The ratio of costs and key economic indicators

     To determine the appropriateness of investments in environmental protection measures, the ratio of expenditures on BAT and a number of key production and economic results of activities can be analyzed: gross income, turnover, operating profit, cost, and others.

     In this analysis, it is possible to apply a scale of reference values obtained from a survey of EU enterprises, which rank such ratios into three categories.:

     acceptable costs – if investment costs have little effect on key profitability indicators and these costs can be considered acceptable without further discussion.;

     The discussed ones are average costs, when it seems difficult or impossible to give a clear assessment of the feasibility of investments and the result requires consideration taking into account additional factors.;

     unacceptable costs – if investments are excessive in relation to key performance indicators.

     Table 2.1. Approximate reference values of the feasibility of investments in environmental protection [38]

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      The scale of reference values allows you to quickly exclude technologies with obviously high costs or identify techniques whose implementation costs can be considered feasible without any additional analysis.

     However, due to the large range of values within the "discussed" category, a significant part of environmental investments may fall within this range, which makes them quite uncertain for an unambiguous conclusion about the validity of investments. In this case, in addition to the conditions prevailing at a particular enterprise, the feasibility of investments should be assessed taking into account additional industry aspects, such as the period of the BAT project implementation, the overall level of investment in environmental protection, the current market and financial situation, and others.

     In general, the scale of reference values is considered as an evaluation guideline applicable in most cases of BAT assessment, and can also be used to build ranges of BAT application, taking into account the financial and economic condition of a particular enterprise.

     2.3.6. Cost increase

     An essential factor for determining the applicability of BAT is also the additional costs that may be incurred when introducing technology into the current production process, since the introduction of BAT increases the cost of services and reduces the potential of BAT in terms of economic efficiency.

     The percentage ratio of the annual costs of introducing NDT and the total production cost of services expresses the increase in cost, taking into account the additional costs of the enterprise for NDT. Determining the cost increase allows you to compare the cost of implementing BAT with the production cost of services, as well as determine the impact of BAT on operating margins.

2.3.7. Cost-benefit ratio

     One of the main ways to economically evaluate BAT is to analyze the expenditure of funds on the implementation of BAT and the environmental result achieved from its implementation in the form of reducing/preventing the emission of pollutants and/ or reducing/preventing waste. The relative ratio of these values determines the cost effectiveness of BAT per unit mass/volume of the pollutant and/or waste being reduced on an annual basis.

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Cost efficiency =

Total annual costs

Annual emission reduction

     Annual costs are understood as the sum of capital (investment) costs distributed over the entire life of the BAT on an annual basis, and operating (operational) costs. The recalculation of capital expenditures on an annual basis is carried out by the annual conversion coefficient (as a function of the BAT service life and the discount rate), which in an economic sense represents the rate of linear depreciation of fixed assets.

     Discounted annual costs reflect the volume of investments for the BAT implementation project, taking into account the time cost of capital and the service life of the corresponding equipment.

     In order to correctly determine the annual costs of BAT, sufficient detail of investment capital investments and the distribution of operating expenses according to the relevant cost items must be ensured.

     When calculating annual costs, the formula is used:

     Annual cost= I0r1+rn1+rn-1+OC

     where:

     I0 – total investment expenses in the year of acquisition;

     OS – annual net operating expenses;

     r is the discount rate;

     n is the expected service life.

     The result of the ratio of annual costs to the achieved environmental result expresses the amount of money spent on reducing pollutant emissions per unit mass/volume. Comparing the calculation results for different bats allows the BAT operator to determine which one is more economically efficient and allows spending less money on the same emission reduction.

2.3.8. Payments and fines for negative impact on the environment

     In addition to directly analyzing the indicators of the economic effectiveness of BAT, it may be useful to calculate payments and fines payable for negative environmental impacts in the presence of BAT and in its absence. The general procedure, rates of payment for negative environmental impact and environmental fines are regulated by the tax and administrative legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

     It should be noted that in addition to payments established by tax legislation at the national level, local representative bodies (maslikhat) have been granted the right to raise the current rates of payment for negative environmental impact within the relevant administrative units in relation to the disposal of municipal waste (MSW, sludge from sewage treatment plants).

     At the same time, certain regulatory measures have been taken to stimulate the introduction and application of BAT at the legislative level. In particular, for enterprises that have received a comprehensive environmental permit, a zero coefficient is set to the rates of payments to the budget due for negative environmental impact.

     At the same time, starting in 2025, for the active implementation by industry entities of environmental protection measures and the use of BAT, in the absence of a comprehensive environmental permit to the current rates of payment for negative environmental impact on category I enterprises included in the list of fifty category I facilities, the largest in total emissions of pollutants into the environment by 1 On January 1, 2021, an increasing factor of 2 (a twofold increase in payments) will be applied, starting in 2028 – a factor of 4 and starting in 2031 – a factor of 8.

     Additionally, for the implementation of emissions that have a negative impact on the environment, including without an environmental permit for an existing facility, a fine of ten thousand percent of the corresponding fee rate is imposed in respect of the excess amount of pollutants.

     The use of BAT with the receipt of appropriate environmental permits allows enterprises to achieve significant savings in environmental payments and fines for negative environmental impacts.

2.3.9. Calculation "on installation"

     The process of implementing BAT measures, especially in large industrial enterprises, is often an integral part of the overall process of reconstruction or modernization of production. In order to exclude the impact of investment and operating costs incurred by the facility operator during these processes or the implementation of other investment projects, information on the costs of reducing the negative impact on the environment should represent only that part of the costs that are spent exclusively on the BAT in question.

     In such conditions, objective data are data on the costs of BAT "on the installation", that is, directly aimed at BAT, reducing/preventing emissions of pollutants and/or waste into the environment, or BAT, implementing technologies for their disposal using this BAT. When calculating "on installation", the total cost includes the cost of:

     basic technologies and equipment;

     additional/auxiliary technologies and equipment that are an integral part of BAT;

     pre/post-treatment facilities, consumables, raw materials and reagents, without which the use of BAT is technologically impossible.

     The "on-site" calculation makes it possible to eliminate the uncertainty factor in classifying the capital and operating expenses of the facility operator, and compare the company's costs for alternative bats by comparable indicators.

3. Applied processes: technological, technical solutions currently used

     This section of the BAT handbook contains a description of the main technological processes and methods, as well as their combinations used in waste disposal.

3.1. Processes at hazardous waste landfills – Class 1

     The requirements for hazardous waste landfills are regulated by the Environmental Code, sanitary and epidemiological requirements, building codes and international standards.

     The list of wastes allowed for disposal at hazardous waste landfills is determined by the authorized body in the field of environmental protection.

     The main purpose of such landfills is the safe long–term isolation storage of hazardous waste with minimal risk of environmental pollution. For this purpose, specialized technological solutions and engineering systems have been developed that provide protection against leaks, migration of pollutants and the effects of climatic factors.

     A hazardous waste landfill is a complex engineering facility designed to receive, neutralize, store and dispose of hazardous (including toxic) waste. These facilities are created and operate in accordance with legal requirements, ensuring minimization of harmful effects on the environment and public health. The entire infrastructure of the landfill is organized in such a way as to prevent the spread of pollutants into the soil, water and atmospheric air.

     Toxic waste is a type of hazardous waste containing toxic substances that, if handled improperly, can cause harm to humans and the environment.

     Hazard classes (from I to IV) are used to determine the toxicity of waste, established on the basis of methods and criteria developed in accordance with the environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan and sanitary regulations.

The polygon consists of several zones, each of which performs its own function. The production area is designed for waste reception and primary treatment. There are unloading sites, analysis laboratories and special areas for waste disposal. The laboratories check the composition of the waste, classify it and determine the methods of further treatment. If necessary, dangerous substances are subjected to thermal, chemical or physico-chemical treatment, which reduces their toxicity and prevents undesirable reactions. In some cases, the waste is pre-stabilized, which significantly reduces the risks of its interaction with the environment.

     The main part of the landfill is a waste disposal area. It consists of isolated areas equipped with anti-filtration screens that prevent toxic substances from entering the groundwater. Depending on the hazard class, the waste is placed either in airtight containers or stored in layers using special protective coatings. In some cases, special structures are used to store particularly dangerous substances, providing additional protection against possible leaks. Modern landfills are equipped with multilayer engineering barriers, including geomembranes, clay screens and drainage systems, which makes them as safe as possible in the long term.

     The main processes at such landfills include the reception, treatment, disposal of waste, as well as monitoring and control of environmental impacts.

     Designing a hazardous waste landfill

     The design of the landfill and the screen system must follow geotechnical principles for the construction of screens, dams, slopes, landfill cells and drainage structures. The strength of both soil in situ (the study or impact on the soil occurs at the site of its natural occurrence, without moving the soil to the laboratory) and engineered soils should be evaluated using laboratory and field tests. The density of the slopes and slopes of the dams should be sufficient for safe operation in both the short and long term.

     Control of filtrates

     The migration of liquids/water in and out of the landfill occurs due to differences in liquid/water levels in the landfill and in the surrounding soil. If the liquid/water level in the landfill is higher than the groundwater level, there is a possibility that the filtrate may escape from the landfill. In this case, the insulating shield can serve as the main barrier to prevent contamination. If the liquid/water level in the landfill is below the groundwater level, then the filtrate should not leak out of the landfill. There are also cases when the difference in the levels of these liquids is minimal, but such situations are rare.

     If measures are not taken to control the level of filtrate in a landfill for hazardous waste, it will usually be higher than the groundwater level. The main task of the filtrate collection system is to keep its level as low as possible, and ideally below the level of the surrounding groundwater. This minimizes the risk of pollutants migrating into the groundwater outside the landfill.

     A filtrate management system can be developed to limit and control the migration of pollutants from a hazardous waste landfill. Typically, the filtrate is collected above the upper composite screen and transported through a network of perforated pipes to storage tanks or lifting pipes for collection and disposal on the surface.

     Important aspects of the design of the filtrate collection system are described in the relevant regulatory materials.

     The leak detection system can monitor the long-term effectiveness of the main filtrate collection and isolation system. It also serves to collect most of the leaks, making it a secondary filtrate collection system. The building requirements for this system are similar to those for the main system.

     A leak detection and recovery system should be installed between two composite screens to measure the rate of leaks over time, as well as to collect and analyze filtrate. This information is used to evaluate the current effectiveness of the basic composite insulation.

     The characteristics of the filtrate from a new landfill for hazardous waste can be quite unpredictable. The analysis of the filtrate at a specific facility will allow us to assess its characteristics, which will depend on the composition of waste at the landfill. Filtrate from such a landfill can be classified as hazardous waste or wastewater that requires purification/treatment.

     The filtrate may be difficult to process and dispose of. The amount of filtrate can be reduced by installing an appropriate coating or landfill coating to reduce water intake. If the volume of filtrate is relatively small, it may not be necessary to install a plant for its purification at the landfill, and the filtrate can be transported to the appropriate facility for processing.

     Engineering coverage

     An engineering coating (also known as a "final coating") for a hazardous waste landfill is designed to control, minimize, or eliminate (depending on the need to protect the environment and human health) leaks of materials from the landfill into the soil, surface waters, or atmosphere. If these emissions are not considered safe, they should be managed as hazardous waste and may include buried waste, filtrate, vapors/gases, polluted effluents, or decomposition products.

     Engineering coverage differs from daily and temporary coverage in function and form. It is designed to create an impenetrable barrier to prevent liquid from entering the landfill and leaking materials from the inside, thus isolating the landfill from the environment. The engineering coating should also:

     to control or minimize the flow of liquids into the closed cell of the landfill;

     operate with minimal maintenance;

     promote surface drainage;

     withstand erosion or abrasion;

     take into account subsidence to maintain the integrity of the coating.

     An engineering coating system should be installed on each cell of the landfill to isolate waste, control water ingress, and provide erosion protection at the facility. The barrier layer of the coating must be securely connected to the system of insulating screens of the landfill along the perimeter of the cells. The coating system must be thick enough to minimize damage from freezing/thawing cycles.

     Stormwater management

     Proper stormwater management is an important aspect in the design and construction of a landfill for hazardous waste. Appropriate measures must be taken to channel surface waters (i.e. "incoming waters") from the active zone of the landfill. Incoming waters from areas with buried hazardous waste should be collected separately, analyzed and, if necessary, managed as hazardous waste. Incoming waters from active zones should also be considered as potentially contaminated, analyzed and, if necessary, managed as hazardous waste.

     All storm water management projects should be evaluated taking into account the possible consequences of a repeat of the largest regional natural disaster (the strongest storm recorded in the region).

     Landfill gas

     Biodegradation of waste causes the release of gases such as methane and carbon dioxide into the underground layers. Although it is known that the release of gases from hazardous waste is usually low, it is necessary to assess the potential formation of gases at the landfill and their emissions into the underground layers.

     Gases can form in buried waste as a result of a chemical reaction of incompatible materials or decomposition of organic substances. They can also be the result of the evaporation of volatile chemical waste deposited in a landfill. Incompatible filtrates or waste generated at the landfill may also be sources of gas. It is more difficult to predict the formation of gases from old or leached materials that have undergone chemical changes at the landfill.

     In addition, gases can form in some areas of the landfill, as well as in others. Due to the diversity and unpredictability of the composition of hazardous waste, the prediction of gas formation is always associated with a certain degree of uncertainty.

     It is necessary to assess the potential formation of gases in a landfill for hazardous waste. It is also necessary to evaluate possible ways of gas migration in the underground layers of the natural environment. The migration of gases should be monitored regularly, especially if significant gas formation is observed. The gases released must be analyzed to determine which waste products are potential sources of gas. This information should be used to develop mitigation strategies.

     If necessary, an appropriate emergency complex for collection, treatment and gas disposal should be implemented.

     Operation of a hazardous waste landfill

     The successful operation of a hazardous waste landfill, designed with engineering requirements in mind, depends on strict control of operating procedures and efficiency monitoring. These procedures should be consistent with the overall design philosophy of the facility and ensure proper closure and post-closure care.

     The operation strategy should be closely linked to the environmental management system.

     When developing an operational plan for a proposed facility, specific requirements for jurisdiction and authority should be defined.

     Administrative procedures

For a hazardous waste landfill designed with engineering requirements in mind, a comprehensive operational manual should be prepared, which will serve as the main reference document for daily operation. All personnel should be familiar with this manual in order to use it as the main source of information for daily operation. The Guidelines should be regularly reviewed and updated as new procedures related to environmental or regulatory conditions are developed. The review and update process is a planned activity within the framework of the SEU strategy.

     The procedure manual should cover all important details of the work, including:

     Health and safety;

     waste passports and transfer documents;

     transport documents;

     daily waste traffic logs;

     citizens' appeals and measures taken;

     monitoring of effectiveness and compliance with standards;

     maintenance (including all corrective actions);

     training;

     Public relations;

     contingency management;

     emergency procedures, including fires and actions in case of fire;

     reporting.

     The manual should be written in such a way that it is convenient to use it as a reference material. Learning opportunities should include the development of decision-making skills.

     Comprehensive inventory control and waste accounting systems should be organized for a hazardous waste landfill. This system must be strictly followed by all operating personnel.

     The facility owner must ensure that all occupational health and safety issues are resolved and properly documented.

     A comprehensive health and safety plan should be developed, if required by the relevant jurisdiction.

     The facility operator must ensure that the necessary equipment is available to protect personnel and ensure its proper use by all persons entering the facility.

     Reception and accounting at a hazardous waste landfill

     The process of waste reception and accounting at hazardous waste landfills is one of the key stages in the waste management system. It is aimed at ensuring control of incoming waste, preventing the ingress of prohibited or unaccounted for materials, as well as documenting their movement and storage. In accordance with the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan, waste collection is carried out strictly within the established norms and requirements.

     Documentary support

     Each waste owner who transfers them to the landfill is required to provide the operator with the following documents:

     detailed description of the waste, including its composition and physico-chemical properties;

     passport of hazardous waste (if there are hazardous properties);

     information about the origin of the waste, including the source of its formation;

     data on the estimated volume and mass of waste.

     Before allowing waste to enter the landfill, the operator checks all documentation for compliance with applicable regulations. If discrepancies are found or there are no mandatory documents, the waste may not be accepted.

     Visual inspection and conformity check

     Before unloading the waste, the landfill operator conducts a visual inspection of each batch. This stage includes:

     visual comparison of waste with the data specified in the documentation;

     checking for the presence of foreign objects and prohibited substances;

     assessment of the packaging and labeling of hazardous waste;

     fixing possible violations for further decision-making.

     If a visual inspection reveals suspicious or inappropriate materials, the operator may initiate an additional waste investigation. In this case, waste samples are sent to an accredited laboratory for analysis of their chemical composition and hazard class. Only after receiving the supporting data, a final decision is made on the possibility of disposal of waste at the landfill.

     In addition, as part of the visual inspection, the operator must pay attention to:

     compliance of waste packaging with safety requirements;

     integrity of containers, bags and other containers to prevent leaks;

     the possibility of secondary contamination or reactive compounds during storage;

     consideration of the impact of climatic conditions (temperature, humidity, precipitation) on the properties of waste.

     To systematize visual inspection, operators keep special inspection logs that record all detected violations, decisions made, and recommendations for additional inspections.

     If necessary, photos or videos of vehicles and/or cargo are recorded.

     Dosimetric control

     To prevent radioactive waste from entering the landfill, each incoming batch undergoes dosimetric control. It includes:

     measurement of ionizing radiation levels using certified dosimeters;

     comparison of indicators with acceptable radiation safety standards;

     in case of exceeding the standards, refusal to accept waste and notification of authorized bodies.

     Weighing and accounting of waste

     After successful completion of the inspections, the waste is sent for weighing using certified weighing equipment. Weighing is carried out to accurately determine the mass of the incoming cargo, and the data obtained is entered into the accounting logs of the landfill. For each batch, the following information is recorded: the mass of waste, the date and time of receipt, the identification data of the waste owner, and the location of waste at the landfill.

     Data storage and systematization

     All information about the received waste is stored in the document management system of the landfill, included in the state cadastre of waste of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The documentation must be kept for at least 5 years and provided to the regulatory authorities upon their request.

     It is possible to organize a unified waste data accounting system for several interconnected waste management facilities, which allows you to see the waste flow as a whole (receipt, processing/ disposal/ disposal, transfer).

     Organization of reception points

     Specialized waste collection points are equipped on the territory of the landfill, equipped with:

     weighing equipment;

     security checkpoints;

     visual inspection tools and automated accounting systems;

     laboratory equipment for rapid waste analysis;

     by washing the wheels.

     Security and violation prevention

     The landfill operator is obliged to ensure strict control over the waste collection process in order to exclude:

     ingress of prohibited waste (radioactive, explosive, biologically active, etc.);

     mixing of different types of waste, which can lead to chemical reactions and additional contamination;

     unauthorized changes to accounting documents;

     unauthorized access to the facility with the mandatory presence of a landfill fence with information about the prohibition of access.

     If violations are detected, the landfill operator must immediately notify the authorized authorities and take appropriate measures.

     The process of waste reception and accounting at hazardous waste landfills is an essential element of the control over the safety of burial. Strict accounting, documentation and verification of incoming materials can minimize the risks of environmental pollution and ensure compliance with the requirements of the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

     Waste disposal

     Hazardous waste management procedures come into effect as soon as vehicles enter the territory of the landfill for hazardous waste.

     Technological processes related to the loading, transportation and unloading of waste from hazard class 1 to 3 are mechanized.

     It is necessary to provide measures to prevent the accidental removal of potentially contaminated materials from the landfill, for example, using wheel tracks or other paths.

     Vehicles entering the facility must unload their cargo for waste inspection before disposal. Waste manifests or movement documents (as required by regulatory authorities) are an important part of tracking waste from the moment it arrives at the facility to disposal. To confirm the type of waste received, it is usually selected for analysis. It is important to verify the correctness of these manifests or movement documents before the waste is accepted.

     After completion of the waste collection procedures, the cargo must be moved to the active disposal area using vehicles and equipment that are designed exclusively to operate in contaminated areas of the facility.

     The disposal of water-soluble waste of hazard class 1 is carried out in steel containers or cylinders with a wall thickness of at least 10 mm with double leakproofness control before and after filling, which are placed in a concrete box.

     The disposal of waste in a liquid state is not allowed. Liquid waste of hazard class 1-3 is converted to a paste–like consistency before being exported to the landfill.

     The process of disposal of hazardous waste at the landfill should be controlled and systematic. Waste disposal procedures should take into account the concept of the planned landfill (enhanced or conventional leaching), the design of the cells and the filtrate control system (to prevent clogging), the requirements for cell development (to ensure physical stability), as well as the requirements for covering and closing the cells (to minimize subsidence). Incompatible materials must also be separated to minimize the risks of explosions, fires, and the release of toxic gases. Other important factors are the effects of infiltration and surface watercourse into the active burial area.

All information about the received waste is stored in the document management system of the landfill, included in the state cadastre of waste of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The documentation must be kept for at least 5 years and provided to the regulatory authorities upon their request.

     It is possible to organize a unified waste data accounting system for several interconnected waste management facilities, which allows you to see the waste flow as a whole (receipt, processing/ disposal/ disposal, transfer).

     Organization of reception points

     Specialized waste collection points are equipped on the territory of the landfill, equipped with:

     weighing equipment;

     security checkpoints;

     visual inspection tools and automated accounting systems;

     laboratory equipment for rapid waste analysis;

     by washing the wheels.

     Security and violation prevention

     The landfill operator is obliged to ensure strict control over the waste collection process in order to exclude:

     ingress of prohibited waste (radioactive, explosive, biologically active, etc.);

     mixing of different types of waste, which can lead to chemical reactions and additional contamination;

     unauthorized changes to accounting documents;

     unauthorized access to the facility with the mandatory presence of a landfill fence with information about the prohibition of access.

     If violations are detected, the landfill operator must immediately notify the authorized authorities and take appropriate measures.

     The process of waste reception and accounting at hazardous waste landfills is an essential element of burial safety control. Strict accounting, documentation and verification of incoming materials can minimize the risks of environmental pollution and ensure compliance with the requirements of the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

     Waste disposal

     Hazardous waste management procedures come into effect as soon as vehicles enter the territory of the landfill for hazardous waste.

     Technological processes related to the loading, transportation and unloading of waste from hazard class 1 to 3 are mechanized.

     It is necessary to provide measures to prevent the accidental removal of potentially contaminated materials from the landfill, for example, using wheel tracks or other paths.

     Vehicles entering the facility must unload their cargo for waste inspection before disposal. Waste manifests or movement documents (as required by regulatory authorities) are an important part of tracking waste from the moment it arrives at the facility to disposal. To confirm the type of waste received, it is usually selected for analysis. It is important to verify the correctness of these manifests or movement documents before the waste is accepted.

     After completion of the waste collection procedures, the cargo must be moved to the active disposal area using vehicles and equipment that are designed exclusively to operate in contaminated areas of the facility.

     The disposal of water-soluble waste of hazard class 1 is carried out in steel containers or cylinders with a wall thickness of at least 10 mm with double leakproofness control before and after filling, which are placed in a concrete box.

     The disposal of waste in a liquid state is not allowed. Liquid waste of hazard class 1-3 is converted to a paste–like consistency before being exported to the landfill.

     The process of disposal of hazardous waste at the landfill should be controlled and systematic. Waste disposal procedures should take into account the concept of the planned landfill (enhanced or conventional leaching), the design of the cells and the filtrate control system (to prevent clogging), the requirements for cell development (to ensure physical stability), as well as the requirements for covering and closing the cells (to minimize subsidence). Incompatible materials must also be separated to minimize the risks of explosions, fires, and the release of toxic gases. Other important factors are the effects of infiltration and surface watercourse into the active burial area.

     Accurate records of waste disposal should be kept throughout the entire period of landfill filling. The waste disposal plan should be linked to control points on the ground. These records will be necessary if there is a need to extract specific waste from the landfill and allow it to be accurately recovered in the future. Waste disposal records can be used for various other purposes.

     Daily and temporary coverage

     The temporary covering of the landfill is intended to improve safety factors, drainage, ventilation, insulation and protection of the foundation. Since hazardous waste landfills contain hazardous materials rather than decomposing waste, such facilities do not attract pests and disease vectors (organisms that can carry diseases or other threats) in the same way as municipal landfills.

     Daily coverage is used to prevent and control such organisms if they appear. It may also be necessary to minimize environmental impacts, such as odors, dust, fire, or debris that can be spread by wind. The daily coating effectively isolates waste from the external environment in case of accidental reactions. In extreme cases, it can mitigate the effects of spontaneous events such as explosions.

     In waste disposal operations, temporary coating can be effectively used to isolate or separate waste. It can also be useful for controlling infiltration, vapors, and gases. Coating materials can be used to ensure physical stability and serve as a "filler" in the voids between the deposited waste, which helps reduce settling problems. A temporary coating can be used to limit the impact of precipitation on waste cells, while such a coating material must be finer-grained than granular in order to effectively perform this task.

     The operational plan should take into account the requirements for daily and temporary coverage, as well as the necessary supplies of materials. Logistical issues such as the use of the coating in winter and the freezing of the coating material should also be considered in the operational plan.

     Filtrate collection, leak detection and leak recovery systems

     Filtrate collection, leak detection, and leak recovery systems are designed to remove virtually all liquids that leak out of a hazardous waste landfill during its polluting life. The filtrate collection system has a finite service life, which can be significantly shorter than the estimated life of contamination of the facility. Therefore, it would be advisable to design a system that can be replaced as many times as necessary, with minimal effort. These active systems perform two main functions:

     minimizing the potential movement of pollutants;

     monitoring the effectiveness of isolation or control systems.

     A system should be installed to remove the pumped liquids, which will minimize the pressure of the liquid on the lower protective shell. The system requires an effective performance monitoring program, which must be regularly evaluated. The monitoring program should initiate corrective actions if the system performance does not meet the minimum requirements.

     The authority may require official approval of the criteria for the effectiveness of these systems and any subsequent changes. Unless it is proven that the filtrate is not dangerous, it should be treated as hazardous waste and managed accordingly.

     Waste disposal and stabilization

     Waste disposal and stabilization are key processes aimed at reducing the risk of waste before its final disposal. These methods can minimize toxicity, the likelihood of the spread of pollutants and the impact on the environment [16].

     Waste disposal methods

     Waste disposal is carried out by various methods, depending on their chemical composition, physical condition and the level of danger. The main technologies include:

     Physical methods

     Physical methods are aimed at changing the physical properties of waste without changing its chemical composition. The main processes include:

     Filtration and precipitation are used to separate solid particles from liquid waste, which reduces the content of suspended and dissolved pollutants.;

     Freezing is used for temporary neutralization of liquid waste, prevents the evaporation of toxic substances.;

     Evaporation and sublimation – allows waste to be concentrated by removing volatile components;

     separation and phase separation – the physical separation of multicomponent waste, for example, the removal of oil from wastewater.

     Chemical methods

     Chemical methods are aimed at changing the chemical composition of waste in order to neutralize it or convert it into less dangerous compounds. The main processes include:

     Oxidation is the use of strong oxidizing agents (potassium permanganate, ozone) to decompose toxic substances.

     Reduction is used to neutralize oxidized compounds, for example, the conversion of hexavalent chromium into less toxic trivalent chromium.

     Neutralization is used for acidic and alkaline wastes by mixing them with reagents such as lime or sulfuric acid.

     Precipitation is the conversion of toxic components into an insoluble form, for example, precipitation of heavy metals with sulfides or hydroxides.

     Stabilization and safe storage of waste

     Waste is stabilized to prevent its interaction with the environment after burial. The main technologies include:

     Immobilization of waste

The authority may require official approval of the criteria for the effectiveness of these systems and any subsequent changes. Unless it is proven that the filtrate is not dangerous, it should be treated as hazardous waste and managed accordingly.

     Waste disposal and stabilization

     Waste disposal and stabilization are key processes aimed at reducing the risk of waste before its final disposal. These methods can minimize toxicity, the likelihood of the spread of pollutants and the impact on the environment [16].

     Waste disposal methods

     Waste disposal is carried out by various methods, depending on their chemical composition, physical condition and the level of danger. The main technologies include:

     Physical methods

     Physical methods are aimed at changing the physical properties of waste without changing its chemical composition. The main processes include:

     Filtration and precipitation are used to separate solid particles from liquid waste, which reduces the content of suspended and dissolved pollutants.;

     Freezing is used for temporary neutralization of liquid waste, prevents the evaporation of toxic substances.;

     Evaporation and sublimation – allows waste to be concentrated by removing volatile components;

     separation and phase separation – the physical separation of multicomponent waste, for example, the removal of oil from wastewater.

     Chemical methods

     Chemical methods are aimed at changing the chemical composition of waste in order to neutralize it or convert it into less dangerous compounds. The main processes include:

     Oxidation is the use of strong oxidizing agents (potassium permanganate, ozone) to decompose toxic substances.

     Reduction is used to neutralize oxidized compounds, for example, the conversion of hexavalent chromium into less toxic trivalent chromium.

     Neutralization is used for acidic and alkaline wastes by mixing them with reagents such as lime or sulfuric acid.

     Precipitation is the conversion of toxic components into an insoluble form, for example, precipitation of heavy metals with sulfides or hydroxides.

     Stabilization and safe storage of waste

     Waste is stabilized to prevent its interaction with the environment after burial. The main technologies include:

     Immobilization of waste

     The immobilization process is aimed at fixing toxic components in a solid matrix, eliminating their leaching and spreading.

     Cementation is the mixing of waste with cement and fillers (ash, sand), creating a solid structure resistant to water.

     Clay stabilization is used to retain liquid waste, preventing its penetration into groundwater.

     Glass immobilization is the transformation of hazardous substances into a glassy mass, which makes them chemically inert.

     Insulation screen system

     Insulating screens help prevent the movement of liquids and hazardous materials from a hazardous waste landfill into groundwater. They also prevent the spread of gases generated at the landfill. There are the following main categories of insulation screens:

     natural low-permeable clay deposits,

     compacted clay screens,

     geosynthetic Clay Screens (GCL),

     geomembrane screens.

     Natural clay deposits

     Natural deposits can have more variable characteristics than artificial clay screens and contain natural cracks, which requires the use of a larger thickness of material to ensure reliable insulation.

     Compacted clay screens

     Compacted clay screens protect well against certain pollutants such as organic compounds and heavy metals, but are not always effective against salts. It is important to consider the chemical composition of the clay to prevent reactions between the filtrate and clay, which can reduce the effectiveness of insulation.

     Geosynthetic Clay Screens (GCL)

     Geosynthetic clay screens are very thin and are usually used together with natural material to create an effective barrier against pollutants through diffusion.

     Geomembrane screens

     Geomembranes are also thin and can develop holes or tears, which can lead to leaks if they are used without additional protection. However, they provide excellent protection against liquids and the diffusion of ionic pollutants such as heavy metals and chlorides, but they can skip the diffusion of organic chemicals.

     Combined screens

     Each type of material has its advantages and disadvantages, which is why combined screens are often used, which combine two materials to form a composite screen. These are usually geomembrane and compacted clay soil, which makes it possible to compensate for the disadvantages of each material. For example, such a composite shield can effectively protect against organic pollutants and heavy metals, as well as reduce leakage by taking advantage of both materials.

     Design and installation of insulation screens

     The design and construction of insulation screens for hazardous waste landfills requires special care. Historically, clay soils with a high clay content were used as the screen material, especially if they were in a suitable hydrogeological environment. However, composite materials are most often used to create screens.

     The modern design standard for a hazardous waste landfill often includes a dual composite screen system with natural attenuation. However, a project can be accepted if it provides equivalent or better protection for the environment and human health and meets all regulatory requirements.

     Factors of designing and installing a compacted soil screen

     When designing and installing a screen made of compacted soil, the optimal moisture content for clay compaction, the thickness and type of sealing layers, the resistance of the screen materials to fluid migration (hydraulic conductivity/permeability), the interaction of clay with pollutants, and quality control procedures during construction should be taken into account.

     Factors of design and installation of geomembrane and GCL screens

     When designing and installing geomembrane and GCL screens, it is necessary to take into account:

     compatibility with hazardous waste, filtrate and gases;

     weather resistance, including UV radiation;

     resistance to mechanical damage;

     resistance to rodents, insects and microbes;

     chemical aging resistance;

     maintaining established properties at operating temperatures;

     efficiency of joint joints and seams;

     quality control requirements during production and installation;

     the predicted service life.

     Among the materials for synthetic membranes, HDPE (high density polyethylene) is preferred, which has high tensile strength, good tear and puncture resistance, excellent flexibility at low temperatures, and excellent resistance to a wide range of hazardous materials.

     Geomembrane screens should be designed and installed with protection against the formation of holes, tears and cracks during construction and operation.

     Contingency plan and procedures

     A set of emergency procedures should be prepared and regularly updated. These procedures should cover all possible and predictable emergency scenarios. The plan should include measures to eliminate accidents both inside and outside the facility that may affect public health and safety, the environment and property.

     Contingency plans are traditionally associated with performance monitoring programs. Monitoring results that go beyond pre-defined norms become a signal for taking action and determine the necessary level of response.

     All employees should be trained to deal with such situations. Regular exercises or training sessions can be effective in preparing staff for these procedures.

     The operator of a hazardous waste landfill must ensure that contingency plans are developed for all phases of the facility's operation, including construction, operation, maintenance, replacement, closure, and post-correction maintenance.

     The contingency plan should include plans, technical specifications, and descriptions of measures and procedures to be used at the facility.

     Environmental monitoring programs

     Environmental monitoring programs on the territory of a hazardous waste disposal facility and in its vicinity allow the owner and the monitoring body to perform the following tasks:

     set the basic conditions on the site;

     track natural and/or external changes;

     confirm that the facility is operating in accordance with the project (checking the effectiveness of the environmental management system);

     identify possible impacts on the surrounding ecosystem;

     comply with the requirements of regulatory authorities.

     Monitoring allows you to confirm that the facility is functioning properly, for example, by checking the operation of the leak detection system. Results beyond the expected values should initiate further investigations and, if necessary, corrective actions before the impact on the boundaries of the facility becomes noticeable. Performance monitoring is also used to demonstrate the success of the corrective measures taken.

Closure

     Final closure means the moment when part or all of the hazardous waste disposal facility fills up. This is a transitional stage from active filling to the period when waste disposal stops and the final coating is installed. The closure requires specific procedures to ensure the long-term integrity and safety of the facility. At the same time, the protection of the environment and human health is a priority.

     Plans for the care of the facility after its closure should be prepared at the initial design stage of the facility. These plans should be updated if they change in any way as a result of changes in the design or operational procedures of the facility. The inclusion of specifications for closure at the design stage will ensure that the facility's development plans are compatible with the requirements for deactivation and long-term care after closure.

     The operator of a hazardous waste disposal facility is required to close the facility in such a way as to minimize the need for further maintenance. In addition, any ongoing leakage of dangerous pollutants into groundwater, surface waters, and the atmosphere must be controlled within limits sufficient to protect the environment and human health.

     After completion of the closure of the disposal cell, all equipment and facilities used at the facility (with the exception of long-term environmental control and monitoring systems) must be disinfected and/or disposed of properly.

     Reclamation

     The reclamation plan covers the period from the moment the last active zone of the facility is closed until it ceases to pose a significant threat to the environment and public health.

     Measures for the reclamation of a hazardous waste landfill should be provided for at the design and planning stage. In the future, these plans need to be regularly reviewed and adjusted in case of changes in the facility's design or operational processes.

     The next use of the landfill site must be determined in advance, and all necessary permits must be obtained at the design stage and after its closure. Appropriate restrictions on the use of land should also be established to prevent violations of the conditions for safe waste storage. Long-term use cases for the Territory should exclude significant construction work, such as the construction of buildings, roads and utilities. However, it is possible to use the site for less intensive purposes, for example, for recreational purposes. At the same time, access to the territory should be restricted indefinitely.

     The choice of a specific use case will depend on the site's characteristics, including the data obtained during monitoring. In case of significant subsidence, erosion, gas emissions, or filtrate formation, it may be necessary to completely restrict access to the territory until the situation stabilizes.

     The reclamation plan should include a description of the operational measures that will be carried out after the final closure of the facility, as well as their frequency.

     It is mandatory to include in the plan:

     maintaining the integrity and functionality of the final protective coating;

     operation and maintenance of filtrate and gas collection systems, as well as their purification plants;

     regular environmental monitoring;

     protection and maintenance of geodetic landmarks;

     control of access to an object in accordance with an approved use case;

     long-term response measures to possible environmental risks.

3.2. Processes at non-hazardous waste landfills – Class 2

     Criteria for waste types and volumes

     The types of waste taken to the landfill determine the possible sources of pollution and, consequently, the potential environmental risk.

     If the landfill accepts only relatively inert materials, such as construction and dismantling waste, which do not have potentially hazardous properties, the environmental consequences will be mainly limited to the formation of dust, noise and precipitation. These factors can be easily controlled.

     Inert waste is waste that does not undergo significant physical, chemical or biological transformations in the environment and does not contain potentially dangerous components after burial. Such wastes generated during construction and dismantling include bricks, concrete, glass, plastics, metals and wood. These wastes should not be contaminated or mixed with other materials (the permissible levels of contamination are determined in the relevant regulatory documents or in consultation with authorized bodies). Inert waste does not include clean natural soils that do not contain other waste.

     If a landfill accepts waste with decomposable contents, the likelihood of polluting filtrate and unpleasant odors increases, which requires more careful management.

     The processes of preparing a second-class landfill, receiving, burying and recultivating it are similar to those at a hazardous waste landfill, with the exception of waste immobilization, since inert waste does not require this.

3.3. Processes at landfills of solid household waste (MSW) -3 class

     The requirements for landfills are regulated by the Environmental Code, sanitary and epidemiological requirements.

     According to the order of the Minister of Ecology, Geology and Natural Resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated September 7, 2021 No. 361 "On approval of the list of types of waste for disposal in landfills of various classes", MSW landfills are allowed to be accepted for burial.:

     municipal waste generated in households as a result of human activity, which cannot be recycled and which does not contain secondary material resources;

     industrial wastes that are close to municipal in composition and nature of formation, which are not recyclable and which do not contain secondary material resources.

     The MSW management procedure at the landfill includes several key steps:

     waste reception and registration;

     unloading and sorting of waste;

     compaction and layering of waste;

     engineering protection of the landfill (provided at the design and construction stage of the landfill);

     environmental monitoring;

     reclamation of closed polygon maps.

     1. Waste reception and registration

     The reception and registration of waste at the MSW landfill begins with the arrival of the vehicle at the checkpoint. Here, the driver presents documents confirming the legality of transportation and the composition of the waste. The checkpoint operator performs an initial inspection of the cargo: checks the data, evaluates the visual condition of waste and transport, and records possible violations.

     After that, the machine is sent to the weighing station, where its loaded weight is determined. All information is entered in the register: who brought the waste, what type it is, how much it weighs, and to which area of the landfill it will be sent. If necessary, the waste can be subjected to additional control – selective analysis or sorting. This is especially important if there is a risk of ingress of prohibited or hazardous waste.

     After the check, the driver receives instructions to unload. Depending on the type of waste, they can be sent either directly to the disposal card, or to a temporary storage or recycling area. After unloading, the machine goes back to the scales to control the actual volume of the discharged waste.

     The final stage is the registration of all data. Information about incoming waste is entered into the accounting system, documents are archived, and, if necessary, the cargo is photographed. This data is used for reporting and monitoring the operation of the landfill, ensuring transparency of waste management processes.

     Waste reception, planning and compaction are provided at the landfill of Enterprise No. 1, allowing to increase the waste load per unit area of facilities, ensuring the rational use of land.

     The administrative and economic zone contains:

     administrative building with boiler room;

     checkpoint;

     an area with a canopy for vehicles;

     warehouse for storage of solutions and disinfection;

     control and disinfection bath;

     fire extinguishing tanks (surface 32m2 of water and underground 100 m2);

     transformer substation;

     drinking water tank;

     washing area for containers and garbage truck bodies;

     Vtortech-15 waste sorting line.

   Figure 3.1. Technological scheme of the polygon.

     Waste collection

     According to sanitary and technological norms and rules, scheduled and regular cleaning of urban areas is carried out.

     The planned and regular cleaning system provides for the regular removal of waste without requests at regular intervals, the use of special garbage trucks for waste disposal, the removal of waste according to a clear route schedule (2 times a day) with garbage trucks assigned to a specific group of buildings, and coverage of all households, regardless of their departmental affiliation.

     Waste transportation

     Transportation of solid waste to the landfill is carried out by garbage trucks. As a rule, special vehicles are equipped with a navigation system. Solid waste is transported from the population and enterprises of the settlement, and solid waste is exported in a timely manner. The shelf life of waste in containers at 0 ° C and below is no more than three days, at plus temperature – no more than a day.

     Waste collection

     The landfill consists of two zones: the territory of solid waste storage (2 sites) and the placement of household facilities.

     Access roads to the landfill are designed for two-way traffic. At the entrance to the landfill there is a checkpoint, car weights, and a barrier.

     The receipt of solid waste is carried out with marks in the waybills of vehicles, statements and the "Journal for the reception of solid waste" for each supplier. The responsible specialist of the enterprise keeps records of the movement of these wastes.

     Waste accounting is carried out with the help of car weights, with an entry in the log, indicating the date, quantity and name of the organizations. Dosimetric control of each incoming batch of waste is provided.

     Reception and distribution of incoming waste into landfill cells, depending on their species composition, as well as waste accounting will be carried out directly at the landfill weight room.

     Portable mesh fences are installed to detain light fractions of waste generated during the unloading of solid waste from garbage trucks. The height of the fences is 4 meters, the width is 1.5 meters. The dimensions of the fenced area should ensure operation without rearrangement for at least a week. Shields are cleaned every shift.

     Description of accepted waste

     Solid waste, construction waste (if there is equipment for their processing) and ash and slag waste are accepted at the landfill.

     The composition and volume of household waste are extremely diverse and depend on the time of year and many other factors. MSW is characterized by a consistently high content of organic matter (up to 78% of dry matter) with minor seasonal fluctuations. MSW has a low calorific value. Their specific heat of combustion is 1,480 kcal/kg, varying seasonally from 1,224 to 1,612 kcal/kg. In the autumn period, with the highest humidity, the calorific value is the lowest. High humidity is determined by the high content of food waste. The content of non-ferrous metals in MSW has increased significantly due to the appearance of aluminum beverage cans, as well as the content of plastic packaging materials, including 1.5-2-liter PET water bottles.

     MSW

     They are formed in the process of household activities of the population and employees of enterprises and institutions, and are stored at a landfill.

     Batches of incoming waste undergo dosimetric control. During waste acceptance, visual control of the fractional and morphological composition of solid waste is performed.

     Construction debris

     It is accepted from organizations and enterprises where it is formed during construction and installation, repair roofing, plastering, painting, concrete works, etc.

     It is stored separately at the landfill as it arrives, small construction debris is used to fill technological roads.

     Ash and slag waste

     It is accepted from organizations and enterprises in which it is formed during the operation of boiler houses.

     It is stored at the landfill site as it arrives, and is used to isolate solid waste.

     Table 3.1. MSW composition, % by weight

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      Таблица 3.2. Состав строительного мусора

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      Таблица 3.3. Состав золошлаковых отходов

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     2. Unloading and sorting

     After completion of the waste collection procedure, the vehicle is sent to the specified unloading area. Depending on the type of waste and its further handling, the machine can proceed to the disposal site, sorting area or temporary storage area.

     Upon arrival at the unloading area, the driver receives instructions from the landfill operator. Unloading can be carried out by a mechanized method (using dump trucks, loaders, bulldozers) or manually if the waste requires pre-treatment. Specialists control the process, ensuring an even distribution of waste, preventing the formation of unauthorized landfills and contamination of adjacent areas.

     In some cases, the waste must be sorted. If a separate collection system is provided at the landfill, the waste is sorted into categories: plastic, glass, metal, paper, organic. Waste suitable for recycling is sent for further processing, while unsuitable waste is sent to the disposal section. The hazardous waste identified during the sorting process is isolated and transferred for specialized disposal.

     After unloading the waste, heavy machinery distributes it into layers, compacting it to reduce the volume and prevent spontaneous combustion. In the disposal areas, waste can be poured with inert materials (soil, sand) to minimize the impact on the environment.

     The landfill operator checks the unloading area, records the volume and composition of waste in the accounting documentation. This is necessary to control landfill congestion, sorting efficiency, and compliance with sanitary and environmental requirements.

     At Enterprise No. 1, solid waste is sorted as follows.

     Special vehicles unload on a concrete platform near the sorting line (MSK Vtortech-15, capacity 15,000 tons/year). The loader (Front loader LW 300 F) moves into the receiving hopper of the drum separator for separating organic matter and crushing waste, then the waste enters the pit of the feeding conveyor located at floor level to ensure uniform waste supply. The conveyor type is chain–type, L-shaped, the angle of inclination of the conveyor is 30°, the working width of the conveyor belt is 900 mm, the length of the horizontal (receiving) part is 5500 mm, the belt is 8 mm thick, rubber–woven with metal blades. The speed of the belt is adjustable – from 0.1 to 0.6 m/s, protecting the chain and the process compartment from debris. In the future, they move to sorting with separation of fractions (glass, plastic, metal, etc.).

     Waste is sorted on the sorting line, with separation of fractions (glass, plastic, metal, etc.). The selected fractions are dumped into storage tanks, 17% remains for disposal at the landfill, 83% of each waste fraction is compressed and transferred to an outside organization.

     The unsorted waste is moved outside the hangar, with the help of a loader, the waste is moved to the trench for further disposal at the landfill.

     The landfill is maintained in accordance with the sanitary rules "Sanitary and epidemiological requirements for the collection, use, application, neutralization, transportation, storage and disposal of industrial and consumer waste" approved by the order of the Acting Minister of Health of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated December 25, 2020 No. KR DSM-331/2020. The soil-fertile layer on the site is being removed. The landfill site is surrounded by an earthen rampart and a bypass ditch around the perimeter, which prevents the removal of light fractions of solid waste outside the territory and flooding of the landfill.

     3. Sealing and layering

     After unloading the waste at the landfill, the process of compaction and layering begins. Waste is distributed to pre-prepared sites in accordance with the disposal plan, which helps to effectively use the landfill space and minimize the impact on the environment.

     The compaction process is carried out using special machinery such as bulldozers and rollers. These machines evenly distribute the waste over the layer, carefully compacting them to reduce the volume and prevent possible formation of voids, which can lead to spontaneous combustion or deterioration of sanitary conditions.

     Each layer of waste is laid taking into account a certain thickness to ensure stability and long-term protection from environmental influences. It is important that each layer is dense and evenly distributed. To do this, the equipment regularly passes through the site, evenly distributing waste and creating stable and durable layers.

     As the area fills up, the waste can be filled with inert materials (for example, soil or sand). This is necessary in order to minimize the impact of moisture, reduce the risk of odors and increase the safety of burial.

     In addition, this approach helps to prevent environmental pollution by minimizing the ingress of toxic substances into groundwater and reducing the likelihood of atmospheric pollution. Compaction of waste and its layering also contributes to better odor management and minimization of harmful effects on the ecosystem.

     The landfill operator monitors the process, controls the quality of compaction and records data on waste disposal, which ensures effective landfill management and compliance with environmental standards.

     4. Engineering protection of the landfill

     The engineering protection of a landfill includes a set of measures and facilities aimed at minimizing the impact of buried waste on the environment and ensuring safety. It includes sealing, drainage, gas collection, erosion protection systems, as well as controlled discharge of filtrate and gas.

     Sealing system

     Sealing is the basis of the engineering protection of the landfill, preventing the penetration of pollutants into the groundwater. Polyethylene or polypropylene membranes, which are highly chemically resistant, are laid on the bottom and walls of the quarry. The membranes serve as a barrier for filtrates and prevent their penetration into the soil. Usually their thickness is 1.5 – 2 mm. Geotextiles are used to strengthen membranes and protect them from mechanical damage. Geotextiles prevent the penetration of plant roots and protect membranes from the effects of sharp objects in the waste. In some cases, a multilayer sealing system is used, which includes several types of geosynthetic materials (membranes, geotextiles and clay), which increases the level of protection.

     Drainage and filtration system

     Drainage systems are installed to remove the filtrate formed during the decomposition of waste, which prevent its accumulation and overflow into the environment. Layers of drainage materials (gravel, sand) are laid at the bottom of the landfill, which contribute to the discharge of liquid into the filtrate collection system. These materials provide efficient drainage, preventing liquid from entering the ground. Special pipelines and tanks are used to collect the filtrate, which is then sent to sewage treatment plants for further purification and disposal. In some cases, specialized membranes and materials with high sorption capacity are used for filtration, which makes it possible to effectively purify the filtrate from harmful substances.

     Gas collection systems

     The process of decomposition of waste at the landfill leads to the formation of methane and other gases, which can be dangerous if their concentration is not controlled. Pipelines embedded in the waste layers are installed to capture gases. These pipes collect the gas and discharge it into the recycling system. Methane and other gases collected by the system can be burned using flare installations, which prevents emissions into the atmosphere and reduces the risk of fires. Sensors are being installed at the landfill to monitor the gas level in the air. These devices help to quickly identify possible leaks or high concentrations of gas, preventing emergencies.

     Protection against erosion and surface runoff

     Additional protective structures are being created at the landfill to protect against erosion, rain flows and other external factors. Plants and trees are planted along the perimeter of the landfill and on its inner sections. This reduces the effects of wind and rain, helps to absorb excess moisture and improves the overall microclimate. In the final stage of operation, the landfill is covered with a layer of soil or synthetic materials. This prevents rainwater from entering the waste and reduces the formation of filtrate. Ditches and storm wells are being installed to collect rainwater and redirect it to special drainage systems, preventing pollution of neighboring territories.

     Monitoring and maintenance of security systems

     To ensure the durability and effectiveness of engineering protection, it is important to regularly monitor and maintain all systems. All elements of the sealing, drainage and gas collection systems are regularly checked for damage and wear. If necessary, repairs or replacement of components are carried out. The quality of groundwater, filtrate and air is constantly monitored using automated systems and laboratory tests. Regular environmental studies are conducted, including analysis of gas emissions, water pollution, and soil conditions, which allows for rapid response to possible environmental risks.

     5. Environmental monitoring

     Environmental monitoring of a landfill is a system of regular observations, measurements and analysis of environmental parameters in order to identify and prevent the negative impact of waste on the ecosystem. Monitoring covers monitoring of the state of atmospheric air, soil, surface and groundwater, filtrate levels and biogas emissions during operation and after landfill reclamation.

     Atmospheric air quality control

The concentration of harmful gases generated during the decomposition of waste, such as methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, is monitored at the landfill. For this purpose, sampling is carried out at the border of the SPZ, allowing to record the level of pollutants in the atmospheric air at different points of the landfill and in the adjacent territories. Monitoring data is used to assess the effectiveness of gas collection systems and to prevent the risks of toxic compound emissions.

     Monitoring of surface and groundwater quality

     The filtrate formed at the landfill may contain dangerous chemical compounds capable of penetrating into the water horizons and polluting reservoirs. To prevent these processes, regular sampling of water from wells, storm drains and natural reservoirs near the landfill is carried out. The research includes analysis of the content of heavy metals, organic compounds, petroleum products and other pollutants. If excess of permissible standards is detected, measures are taken to enhance filtrate purification and modernize drainage systems.

     Soil and vegetation control

     To prevent the spread of pollutants, a study of the soil composition is carried out on the territory of the landfill and in its vicinity. The concentrations of toxic elements, the level of acidity and the content of organic compounds are analyzed. Special attention is paid to the areas adjacent to the landfill, where pollutants can accumulate in the soil and plants. In case of detection of deviations, measures are being developed for land reclamation and restoration of vegetation cover.

     Measurement of the filtrate level

     Regular monitoring of the volume and composition of the filtrate is necessary to control the decomposition of waste and the operation of its purification systems. The liquid level in the drainage tanks, the filtration rate and the chemical composition of the effluents are measured. The data makes it possible to evaluate the efficiency of wastewater treatment plants and prevent possible leaks of pollutants.

     Biomonitoring and ecosystem health monitoring

     Additionally, biomonitoring is carried out, including monitoring changes in populations of animals, birds and microorganisms near the landfill. The presence of abnormal abnormalities, such as mass plant deaths or changes in animal behavior, may indicate a negative impact of waste on the ecosystem.

     Documentation and data analysis

     The results of all studies are recorded in reports and used to assess the effectiveness of environmental protection measures. The dynamics of changes are analyzed, and recommendations for reducing environmental risks are developed. Based on the monitoring data, environmental protection measures are being adjusted, including the modernization of treatment systems and the improvement of waste treatment technologies.

     Environmental monitoring of a landfill is an important part of monitoring the state of the environment and allows timely identification of potential threats, minimizing the negative impact of waste and ensuring compliance of landfill activities with environmental standards and requirements.

     6. Reclamation of closed polygon maps

     Reclamation of closed maps of a solid waste landfill is a set of measures aimed at restoring the territory after the end of operation of the waste disposal site. The main purpose of reclamation is to minimize the negative impact of the landfill on the environment and prepare the land for further safe use. The process includes technical and biological steps to ensure the stabilization of waste, the protection of natural resources and the restoration of the ecosystem.

     The technical stage

     At this stage, a protective coating is created that prevents precipitation from contacting waste and minimizes the formation of filtrate and the release of biogas.

     The formation of the relief. The closed polygon map is leveled and compacted, ensuring uniform load distribution and preventing failures.

     Waterproofing of the surface. Multilayer coatings are laid, consisting of clay, geomembranes, geotextiles and drainage materials that prevent water from penetrating into the waste.

     Drainage and drainage system. Vertical and horizontal exhaust pipes are installed to prevent the accumulation of methane and other gases. Surface drainage systems drain rain and meltwater, reducing the load on the insulation layer.

     Covering with a soil layer. A protective layer of fertile soil is applied, creating the basis for subsequent landscaping.

     The biological stage

     This stage is aimed at restoring the vegetation cover and ecosystem, stabilizing the soil and preventing erosion processes.

     Landscaping of the territory. Grasses are being sown and shrubs and trees that are resistant to the specific conditions of the landfill are being planted.

     Soil strengthening. Hydraulic seeding, agrotechnical methods of soil treatment and fertilization are used to accelerate vegetation growth.

     Monitoring the condition of the earth. For several years after reclamation, changes in the soil, the level of pollution and the stability of the vegetation layer are monitored.

     Adaptation of the territory for subsequent use

     After successful completion of reclamation, the site can be used for economic needs, such as the creation of recreational areas, green spaces, parks or forest belts. Industrial and residential construction on the territory of reclaimed maps is possible only after long-term environmental monitoring and confirmation of soil safety.

     Reclamation of closed landfill maps is an integral part of the environmentally sound operation of landfills and minimizes their negative impact on the environment, preventing soil, water and air pollution.

3.4. Processes at long-term waste storage facilities in the mining industry

     Long-term storage facilities for mining waste are specially designated storage and storage facilities.

     Such objects may include:

     tailings dumps are a complex of special structures and equipment for the storage or burial of toxic and other waste tailings of mineral processing [18];

     sludge accumulators are designed for long–term storage of various types of industrial waste.

     Certain requirements must be met during the design, construction, operation and management of long-term waste storage facilities. These include preventing contamination of soil, atmospheric air, groundwater and surface waters, reducing erosion and ensuring the physical stability of the facility.

     Long-term waste storage facilities in the mining industry are designed for the safe storage, accumulation and isolation of waste while minimizing its impact on the environment. Such objects can be located both on the surface and in underground workings.

     The main structural elements of long-term waste storage facilities include a prepared base layer. Before waste disposal, the area is prepared, which includes surface leveling, soil compaction, and the installation of anti-filtration screens such as clay mats, PVC geomembranes, and composite coatings to prevent pollutants from entering the groundwater. A network of drainage pipes is installed at the base of the facility, which collect the filtrate (liquid seeping through the waste) and send it to the purification system. This system helps to prevent contamination of aquifers and the environment.

     To reduce the risk of harmful substances entering the soil and underground aquifers, multilayer waterproofing systems consisting of geotextiles, polymer membranes and clay seals are used. Canals, drainage trenches and anti-erosion slopes are also being constructed to drain surface water and prevent waste from being washed away. Protective dams and fortifications are created to protect against external influences and prevent the spread of waste under the influence of wind or precipitation.

     To reduce dust pollution of the surrounding atmosphere, a waste surface humidification system is used, vegetation is planted around the perimeter, and dust-suppressing reagents are used. The inclusion of a monitoring system in the operation of the facility makes it possible to identify and eliminate potential risks in a timely manner. This system includes monitoring wells for groundwater sampling, sensors for monitoring gas and dust, as well as automated stations for monitoring the stability of dams and embankments.

     Waste collection at the facility is carried out with mandatory documentary control, which includes checking the composition and hazard class of waste before they arrive. All shipments of waste are recorded in the monitoring system, as well as undergo visual inspection and preliminary testing to determine the chemical composition, humidity and other characteristics that may affect the safety of storage. In the process of waste acceptance, their mass is determined and classification by type, taking into account physical and chemical properties. This allows the waste to be properly distributed across different storage areas.

     In some cases, waste is pre-treated for neutralization or stabilization, for example, by cementing or encapsulation, before being placed in a storage facility. Regular monitoring is an important part of the operation of the facility. The facility operator checks the condition of dams, embankments and drainage systems, cleans drainage pipes, monitors the level of filtrate and the condition of drainage systems.

     To prevent waste subsidence and uncontrolled emissions of pollutants, preventive compaction of waste and strengthening of protective structures are carried out. The level of atmospheric air, soil and water pollution in the storage area is also monitored, with mandatory environmental reporting.

To reduce dust pollution of the surrounding atmosphere, a waste surface humidification system is used, vegetation is planted around the perimeter, and dust-suppressing reagents are used. The inclusion of a monitoring system in the operation of the facility makes it possible to identify and eliminate potential risks in a timely manner. This system includes monitoring wells for groundwater sampling, sensors for monitoring gas and dust, as well as automated stations for monitoring the stability of dams and embankments.

     Waste collection at the facility is carried out with mandatory documentary control, which includes checking the composition and hazard class of waste before they arrive. All shipments of waste are recorded in the monitoring system, as well as undergo visual inspection and preliminary testing to determine the chemical composition, humidity and other characteristics that may affect the safety of storage. In the process of waste acceptance, their mass is determined and classification by type, taking into account physical and chemical properties. This allows the waste to be properly distributed across different storage areas.

     In some cases, waste is pre-treated for neutralization or stabilization, for example, by cementing or encapsulation, before being placed in a storage facility. Regular monitoring is an important part of the operation of the facility. The facility operator checks the condition of dams, embankments and drainage systems, cleans drainage pipes, monitors the level of filtrate and the condition of drainage systems.

     To prevent waste subsidence and uncontrolled emissions of pollutants, preventive compaction of waste and strengthening of protective structures are carried out. The level of atmospheric air, soil and water pollution in the storage area is also monitored, with mandatory environmental reporting.

     After the completion of the facility's operation, its conservation is carried out. This includes applying protective coatings, forming a protective layer of inert materials, restoring the soil layer, and planting vegetation to prevent erosion. Post-closure monitoring has been going on for decades to ensure control over possible leaks and degradation of protective structures.

     The operator of a waste storage facility is required to develop a waste management program that includes measures to minimize waste generation, recovery, and disposal. The program should contain a description of waste treatment and disposal methods, including the use of BAT, measures to prevent or reduce waste generation and its hazards, as well as incentives for recycling and reuse of waste within the framework of environmental requirements. The program also takes into account the methods of safe waste disposal with minimal impact on the environment, including the use of design methods aimed at preventing long-term negative consequences.

3.5. Processes at long-term waste storage facilities of energy, metallurgical and chemical-metallurgical industries

     Long-term storage facilities for waste from energy, metallurgical and chemical-metallurgical industries are designed for the safe storage of waste generated during extraction, processing, incineration and other technological processes in these industries. Such waste is often highly hazardous and requires special measures to isolate and manage it.

     The process of organizing waste storage at such facilities includes several key stages and activities.

     The process of preparing the territory for waste storage facilities

     Before starting operation of a long-term waste storage facility, the territory is being improved, including vegetation removal, excavation and removal of excess soil, and surface leveling. An important step is the installation of a waterproofing system that protects the environment from the possible penetration of pollutants into groundwater and surface waters. For this purpose, multilayer waterproofing coatings made of geosynthetic materials (geomembranes, geotextiles), as well as clay or sand layers are often used.

     Then a drainage system is installed at the facility to collect the filtrate, a liquid that seeps through the waste layer. These systems include drainage channels and pipes that conduct the filtrate into a special tank for its purification. It is important that all drainage systems are carefully designed taking into account the specifics of the area and the type of waste, as the filtrate may contain toxic substances such as heavy metals, acids, alkalis and other chemical components.

     The specifics of waste storage in energy, metallurgical and chemical-metallurgical industries

     Energy waste, such as ash and slag, often contains toxic substances, including metals (e.g. cadmium, lead), which can pollute soil and water bodies. These wastes require a particularly careful approach to their storage. The ash is usually stored in designated areas, such as ash and slag ponds or banks, which must be equipped with a reliable sealing and filtration system.

     Metallurgical waste, including sludge, tailings, slags and dust generated during metal smelting, are highly toxic substances containing heavy metals (for example, mercury, zinc, copper, nickel) and various chemical compounds. These wastes often have a high temperature upon arrival at the storage facility, which requires the installation of a cooling system and careful isolation from the atmosphere and water bodies. An important point is to control the chemical activity of waste, as it can continue to release toxic substances during storage.

     Chemical and metallurgical waste may include products of chemical processes, such as acid and alkaline precipitation, solutions with chemical pollutants, organic and inorganic compounds. These wastes can be highly corrosive and their storage requires additional safety measures, such as storage in special containers or the construction of protective dams that prevent pollutants from entering groundwater and surface waters.

     Waste collection and storage process

     Carefully organized waste collection processes are provided at long-term waste storage facilities. Before the waste is deposited, it is checked for compliance with environmental standards, including the determination of chemical composition and degree of danger. Each batch of waste must be documented, and an individual storage plan is developed for it, which includes the place where the waste will be placed, as well as special measures for its safe storage.

     Waste is usually placed in specially prepared areas, which can be divided by waste type. It is important that such areas have good ventilation and a gas control system. At the same time, waste cannot be mixed with other types of waste if this can lead to chemical reactions or increase the degree of danger.

     Technical isolation and safety measures

     To prevent environmental pollution, long-term waste storage facilities are equipped with multi-level protection systems, which include:

     1) waterproofing barriers are multi-layered coatings made of geosynthetic materials that prevent toxic substances from entering groundwater;

     2) monitoring systems – sensors that monitor the level of air, water and soil pollution, as well as monitor the stability of storage facilities (for example, dams and walls);

     3) filtrate purification – installation of sewage treatment plants to filter polluted water and filtrate to ensure their safe discharge into reservoirs or reuse;

     4) Gas management – ventilation and emission control systems for toxic gases such as sulfur dioxide, ammonia, and others that may be released during long-term waste storage;

     5) strengthening of protective structures – strengthening of dams, ramparts and walls to prevent their destruction, erosion and penetration of waste into the environment.

     Post-operational monitoring

     After the closure of the waste storage facility, it has been monitored for decades. At this time, the condition of protective structures, soil stability and the absence of contamination of soil and reservoirs are monitored. The effectiveness of treatment systems for filtrate and discharge of polluted water is also being tested.

     Monitoring includes regular inspections of all systems, including drainage, ventilation and gas disposal, as well as sampling of water and soil for analysis for pollutants. If instability or contamination is detected, measures are taken to correct the situation, such as strengthening structures or additional water purification.

     Disposal of a waste storage facility

     After the end of the life of the waste storage facility, it is closed. This process includes conservation and reclamation of land, restoration of the soil layer and restoration of the ecosystem. The closure of the facility is carried out in accordance with the project documentation, which should take into account safety for people and the environment in the long term.

3.6. Current levels of emissions into the environment at waste disposal facilities

     Enterprise No. 1

     During the operation of the facility, the sources of pollution will be waste disposed at a landfill, a coal boiler room with a coal warehouse, an ash and slag waste site, a PSP dump (fertile soil layer), a soil warehouse for solid waste insulation, parking equipment that have a negative impact on the air basin. All production facilities of the site are located in a single SPZ.

Buildings and structures are provided with single-storey concrete structures, so the destruction of buildings from wind load is excluded. In order to prevent debris from spreading at high wind speeds, work site fences are available.

     Car passes through the territory allow for normal maintenance in case of environmental risks. Fire extinguishers and underground reservoirs of industrial water are provided for filling the combustion centers of solid waste. Gorenje The disinfection barrier will prevent the spread of pathogenic bacteria beyond the territory. For additional protection of groundwater, it is planned to install a waterproofing screen in the working trenches.

     This facility will not use dangerous technologies, toxic and explosive substances. Safety regulations have been developed and are being followed. The staff will receive appropriate training and responsibility for the safety of the enterprise will be distributed.

     The main danger at this enterprise is the formation of burning foci and the inflating of debris in the surrounding area.Gorenje

     In case of such situations, the company has developed a protocol for emergency situations.

     Enterprise No. 2

     The main activity of Enterprise No. 2 is the reception and placement of solid waste that has been sorted and processed, waste that cannot be sorted and processed, as well as the reception and placement of non-hazardous industrial waste, ash and slag waste.

     Waste management is carried out in accordance with the waste management program (MSM), the standards for the second cell facility of the new MSW landfill and the data from the hazardous waste passports.

     Emissions of pollutants into the atmospheric air

     Based on modeling the calculation of the dispersion of pollutants departing from the emission sources of the facility during the rationing period, it was revealed that there was no excess of the maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) at the SPZ border without taking into account the background (1,000 m).

     Soil and groundwater pollution

     No negative impact on surface waters is expected. There are no wastewater discharge sources.

     In accordance with the technological process, preventive measures have been taken: sealing the bottom of the cells and installing drainage channels of the filtrate for cleaning and subsequent reuse, monitoring the condition of the soil and groundwater.

     Physical factors of influence. Noise

     The company declares the noise level according to the workplace certification. The noise level corresponds to the technical characteristics of the equipment.

     Physical factors of influence. Vibration

     The company declares vibration levels in accordance with workplace certification.

     Electromagnetic radiation emissions

     Enterprise No. 2 declares electromagnetic radiation levels in accordance with workplace certification.

     According to the decision to determine the category of an object that has a negative impact on the environment, the object belongs to category I.

     The SPZ of the enterprise is established in accordance with the sanitary rules "Sanitary and epidemiological requirements for sanitary protection zones of objects that are objects of impact on the environment and human health" (approved by order of the Acting Minister of Health of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated January 11, 2022 No. KR DSM-2), is at least 1000 m (section 11, paragraph 45, clause 10 – polygons for placement). Thus, the object belongs to the I hazard class according to the sanitary classification.

     To calculate the emissions, the amount of active waste that stably generates biogas is calculated, taking into account that the period of stabilized active biogas output is on average twenty years and that the phase of anaerobic stable decomposition of the organic component of waste occurs on average two years after waste disposal, i.e. waste imported in the last two years is not included in the the number of active users. It follows that the waste imported in 2019 and 2020 is not among the active ones and does not emit pollutants. The active phase of waste steadily generating biogas has been underway since 2021.

     Non-ferrous metallurgy

     Enterprise No. 3

     Enterprise No. 3 stores man-made mineral formations in a tailings dump and in a light fraction dump with the possibility of subsequent removal and use for the needs of mining and processing complexes of the enterprise.

     The storage and placement of man-made mineral formations and waste is carried out at an industrial site of 11,784 m2.

     Lead and copper thickener drains are cleaned at a hydrometallurgical plant and also enter the tailings dump as enrichment tailings.

     During the period of operation, the build-up of the tailings dam was carried out by pouring secondary rockfall dams onto the washed beach. Secondary dams up to the 450 m mark were made from the washed–up tailings of the beach area, after the 450 m mark - from rocky soil, represented by a light fraction of OP and a mine rock with a screen of loamy soil.

     Conditions for the formation of a tailings dump – pulponymy. Tailings are transported along the pulp duct route from the main building to the pulp pumping station located at the tailings dump. The pulp ducts are made of steel pipes in two strands (one of them is working) with drop wells. The pulp is transported to the sumpfs of the pulp pumping station in gravity mode with the formation of a pressure section 2 km long in front of the sumpfs. The clarified water is discharged from the tailings dump through a VK-3 water intake well (sandor type) through a spillway collector into an oxidizer pond.

     The oxidizer pond is formed by an enclosing water-retaining dam made of loam with stone anchoring the slopes, and has three sections separated from each other by dividing dams. Clarified water is sent to the processing plant of Enterprise No. 3 in the technological process.

     The dump for storing the light fraction is located on the site of the former dump of the quarry rocks, the development of which was completed in 1982 according to the project of opening and mining the deposit. The design features of the dump include its location on a prepared site with a base of loam.

     6017), inorganic dust containing silicon dioxide, maximum 87.79992 t/year – minimum 37.738516 t/year.

     Enterprise No. 4

     During the production of copper concentrate during the processing of sulfide ores at the processing plant, tailings are formed, which are the tailings of the control collective flotation, which are stored in a tailings dump. To reduce the volume of tail pulp, tailings are thickened in high-performance thickeners. The addition of flocculant makes it possible to achieve a solid content of 68% in the pulp, as a result, the consumption of tailings pulp sent to the tailings dump is reduced. Flotation tailings are man-made mineral formations, and further processing is possible. The adopted design solutions ensure the safe storage of flotation tailings in the tailings storage facility.

     The tailings are stored in a series of low conical dumps with a slightly concave slope. The average slope of 1.77% is based on the accepted calculated value for the bottom drain of the thickener (concentration of tailings discharge solids) of 68% of the solids from the high-pressure thickener.

     Condensed tailings are formed after collective flotation of sulfide ore, extraction of copper and molybdenum into concentrate. The condensed tailings are sent via a pulp pipeline to a tailings dump for storage as man-made mineral formations. Dump tails are the tails of the control collective flotation. Due to the flat terrain at the Aktogay site, the method of central discharge of condensed tailings is used. Tailings are stored in cone–shaped stacks of a small height of 10 to 15 meters with a slightly concave slope. Tailings were laid from the central cone, followed by the extension of the dump of the central discharge of condensed tailings in the east and west. The tailings dump system includes a radial distribution tank with 15 outlets and a secondary distribution system for receiving 30 controlled radial nozzles in the tailings dump.

     Enterprise No. 5

     The technological process. Thickening of tailings in the production of copper concentrate during the processing of kaolinized ores.

     The tails of the control and re-clean control flotation are dump tails, which are gravity-fed into the pulp pump and then pumped by pumps into tailings thickeners. The condensed tailings are pumped to the tailings storage facility. The tailings thickener drains are fed back to the processing plant as recycled water. The finished products of the copper-molybdenum ore processing plant are copper and molybdenum concentrate.

     Enterprise No. 6

     The cathode copper is sent to the MPC for remelting, and the desalinated solution is pumped out for neutralization, then to the BOF tailings dump, where the gas streams are processed in a wet cleaning system. In flushing towers, weak sulfuric acid is supplied to the gases by a countercurrent, as a result of which the bulk of the remaining amount of dust is removed. The washing acid is pumped out through neutralization in the BOF tailings dump.

     Enterprise No. 7

     During the operation of processing plants, condensed tailings are formed, which are formed after collective ore flotation and copper extraction into concentrate. The condensed tailings are sent via a pulp pipeline to a tailings dump for storage as man-made mineral formations.

The tailings dump is an alluvial hydraulic engineering structure of the plain type. The technological systems of the tailings industry include: tailings thickening and hydrotransportation systems, a circulating water supply system, a tailings storage system, a filtration water interception system, and a KIA system. The area of the tailings storage facility is divided into two compartments: the Southern and the Northern. The compartments are separated by a cut-off dam from SV-7 on the left side of the tailings dam to the protective dam of the VK-1 water intake well.

     The factory is equipped with a system of ditches and pits with drainage pumps to collect spills and spills.

     The technology uses reagents such as AERO 9863, methyl isobutyl carbinol (MIBC), flocculant "Flopam", butyl potassium xanthogenate and slaked lime.

     A network of monitoring wells is provided for monitoring the groundwater level in the tailing dumps. There are observation wells for monitoring groundwater along the perimeter of the tailings dam on the border of the SZZ in the amount of 4 pieces (one of them is background) and 6 wells on the border of the SZZ processing plants.

     Enterprise No. 8

     Waste and sludge from non-ferrous metallurgy (hydrometallurgy) are stored in a tailings dump.

     The tailings storage complex consists of the following main facilities: a two-section sludge storage tank, drainage facilities; a clarified water pumping station; a discharge pipeline; and an evaporator pond.

     One of the functions of the circulating water supply system is the hydrotransportation of enrichment tailings to the tailings storage complex. The storage of the solid phase of the tailings and the purification of the liquid phase from the remnants of flotation reagents and mechanical suspensions is provided in 2 sections of the sludge accumulator. There is a pumping station for pumping pulp from the concentrator to the tailings dump. The pumping station for the supply of pulp from the OP to the tailings dump is equipped with PB 160/40 pumps. The pump capacity is 160.0 m3/hour. A 50,0 m3 sump is provided in the pumping station to collect wastewater from the factory's waste.

     The anti-filtration screen of the sludge accumulator is made of a 1.0 mm thick polyethylene film on an underlying layer of clay. The sludge storage facilities include protective dams with ramps, and pulp distribution pipelines with structures on them. The slurry accumulator is filled with pulp through distribution outlets equipped with hose valves.

     During the operation of the circulating water supply system, the clarified liquid phase from the sludge accumulator is returned to the processing plant for use as recycled water. The discharge of excess clarified water into the evaporator pond is provided by a discharge pipeline. For the discharge and discharge of excess clarified water outside the sludge reservoir, a spillway is provided that supplies clarified water to a clarified water pumping station.

     The evaporation pond is designed to receive clarified water from a sludge storage tank for the purpose of evaporation. The evaporation pond is located in a natural depression, the talweg, by limiting it to enclosing dams on the upper and lower sides.

     The bulk is left by man-made mineral formations - the tailings of the fluorite ore dressing of the deposit, which are located at the tailings storage facility of the enterprise.

     Hydrofluoric acid sludge is neutralized and stored in a tailings storage card or used for the production of granular gypsum.

     Ferrous metallurgy

     Enterprise No. 9

     The ash and sludge accumulator refers to accumulators with a filter base with limited power and with a contour anti-filtration screen.

     Section No. 1. The area of section No. 1 is 57.4 hectares, the design capacity of section No. 1 of ZSH-3 is 2.714 million m3 with a maximum filling level of 128.5 m. The section was commissioned in 2008. Section No. 1 is intended for waste disposal of "gas cleaning sludge" and "ashtrays". Protective engineering structures: the 1st contour is an enclosing dam with a central core connected to a clay diaphragm at the base; the 2nd contour is a curtain of the "wall in the ground" type along the outer perimeter.

     Section No. 2. Waste disposal of "gas cleaning sludge" is provided in section No. 2. Section No. 2 is adjacent to Section No. 1 and is located within the territory designated for the construction of ZSHN-3.

     The anti–filtration protection is double-circuit, separated by a drainage layer. The enclosing dam is made with a central core and an anti-filtration diaphragm made of clay of the "wall in the ground" type. To create effective anti-filtration protection, it is planned to interface the 1st protection circuit of section No. 2 with the existing circuit of section No. 1. The design capacity of section No. 2 of the ZSH-3 with a maximum filling mark of 128.5 m of the 43,554 ha water mirror area will be 3 389.2 thousand m3.

     In total, over the entire period of its existence, the company has accumulated waste in the following amounts (according to maximum and minimum indicators):

     ash and slag: maximum – 2,042,930,383 tons, minimum – 1,819,935,7224 tons;

     Aspiration dust: maximum – 709,938,953 tons, minimum – 709,938,953 tons;

     slags: maximum – 6,600 thousand tons;

     slimes not otherwise defined: – maximum – 2,381,421,61 tons, minimum – 1,393,669,1754 tons.

3.7. Energy efficiency

     In the process of waste disposal, energy efficiency is an important aspect, which reduces costs and reduces the impact on the environment. To increase energy efficiency, attention should be paid to the introduction of modern equipment, including crushers, pumps and seals. These devices not only improve waste treatment, but also reduce energy consumption without loss of productivity, which is especially important in the context of rising electricity and fuel tariffs.

     One of the most promising solutions to improve energy efficiency is the use of renewable energy sources, in particular biogas generated at landfills. Its processing in special installations requires restrictions from traditional energy sources such as diesel fuel and electricity. In addition, the use of cogeneration plants for the simultaneous production of heat and electricity can significantly increase the overall efficiency, making the waste disposal process more economical and environmentally efficient.

     Transportation of waste is an equally mandatory condition for energy consumption at landfills. A significant part of the fuel is consumed during their transportation, therefore, modernization measures towards more environmentally friendly and economical models can reduce fuel consumption and reduce emissions of harmful substances. Optimization of logistics and transportation routes also plays a key role in reducing costs and reducing negative environmental impacts.

     Currently, specific indicators of energy consumption for waste disposal are not taken into account in state sources, including the State Energy Register. Specific energy consumption rates for waste disposal can vary greatly depending on many factors (type of waste, disposal technology, region, logistics, etc.).

     However, to assess the energy efficiency of waste disposal, an average calculation method is given, which includes determining the amount of energy spent on all technological processes, attributed to the mass of waste. Total energy consumption includes energy for: transportation of waste to the landfill, compaction of waste, operation of drainage filters, collection and disposal of landfill gas, landfill maintenance (lighting, monitoring system, security, etc.).

     Taking into account the above, and based on generalized data from CTA reports, World Bank reports, and Mordor intelligence research, an average summary table of specific energy consumption for waste disposal is presented below. Specific indicators can vary greatly depending on the specific conditions, type of installation, burial conditions, characteristics of the waste used and the technologies used. Therefore, the figures shown in the table are indicative.

     Table 3.4. Information on the stages of the landfill process

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   Landfills without gas discharge with minimal infrastructure consume about 1-5 kWh/ton, landfills with a filter and landfill gas collection system consume an average of 5-10 kWh/ton, and landfills with a gas utilization system and full energy transfer: 10-15 kWh/ton. The specific energy consumption for waste disposal may vary depending on many factors (type of waste, disposal technology, region, logistics, etc.).

     When using the specific indicators shown in the table, it should be noted that they are of a reference nature. Individual studies and calculations must be carried out for the design and operation of waste disposal facilities. When comparing different burial methods, it is important to take into account not only specific indicators, but also other factors such as environmental safety, economic feasibility, etc.

4. General best available techniques for preventing and/or reducing emissions and resource consumption

     This section describes the general methods used in the implementation of technological processes to reduce their negative impact on the environment and do not require technical retrofitting, reconstruction of the facility, which have a negative impact on the environment.

     The fundamental steps in determining the methods aimed at reducing the negative impact on the environment discussed in this section are:

     identification of key environmental issues;

     exploring the methods most suitable for solving these key problems;

     choosing the best available available methods.

     When defining BAT, it is necessary to apply a general approach to understanding the production process. It should be noted that many methods directly or indirectly affect several environmental aspects (emissions, discharges, waste generation, land pollution, energy efficiency).

     The methods can be presented individually or in combination to achieve a high level of environmental protection in the industries covered by this document.

     Many of the techniques and individual stages of the production processes are common, so they are described together. Common stages:

     management systems;

     energy management;

     monitoring;

     waste management.

     Waste disposal can be carried out in various ways, and the disposal process is accompanied by the release of various substances into the environment that have a negative impact on the environment.

     This section provides techniques that can be used in waste disposal.

4.1. NDT of an organizational, managerial and organizational-technical nature

4.1.1. Implementation of the environmental management system

     Description

     SEM is a method that allows plant operators to solve environmental problems on a systematic and obvious basis. EMS are the most effective and efficient when they form an integral part of the overall management system and operational management of production.

     Technical description

     The SAM focuses the operator's attention on the environmental characteristics of the installation. In particular, by applying clear operating procedures for both normal and non-standard operating conditions, as well as by defining appropriate lines of responsibility.

     All existing EMS include the concept of continuous improvement of environmental management. There are various process schemes, but most EMS are based on the "PDCA" (plan–do–check–execute) cycle, which is widely used in other organizational management contexts. A cycle is an iterative dynamic model where the completion of one cycle occurs at the beginning of the next.

     An EMS can take the form of a standardized or non-standard ("configurable") system. The implementation and compliance with an internationally recognized standardized system can enhance the credibility of EMS, especially if properly externally verified. Non-standardized systems can, in principle, be equally effective, provided they are properly designed, implemented, and audited.

     Standardized and non-standardized systems apply in principle to organizations. This document uses a narrower approach, excluding all types of organization activities, for example, in relation to their products and services.

     The SAM may contain the following components:

     1) the interest of management, including senior management at the company and enterprise levels (for example, the head of the enterprise);

     2) analysis, including determining the context of the organization, identifying the needs and expectations of stakeholders, determining the characteristics of the enterprise related to possible risks to the environment (and human health), as well as applicable legal requirements related to the environment;

     3) environmental policy, which includes continuous improvement of the installation through management;

     4) planning and setting the necessary procedures, goals and objectives in combination with financial planning and investments;

     5) performing procedures that require special attention:

     structure and responsibility;

     recruitment, training, awareness and competence of staff whose work may affect environmental performance;

     internal and external communications;

     employee engagement at all levels of the organization;

     documentation (creation and maintenance of written procedures for monitoring activities with significant environmental impact, as well as relevant records);

     effective operational planning and process control;

     maintenance program;

     emergency preparedness and response, including prevention and/or mitigation of the adverse (environmental) consequences of emergencies;

     ensuring compliance with environmental legislation;

     6) ensuring compliance with the environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan;

     7) checking the operability and taking corrective measures, paying special attention to the following actions:

     monitoring and measurement;

     corrective and preventive actions;

     record keeping;

     independent internal and external audits to determine the compliance of the EMS with planned activities and verify whether it is being properly implemented and maintained.;

     8) Review of the EMS and its continued suitability, adequacy and effectiveness by senior management;

     9) preparation of regular reporting provided for by environmental legislation;

     10) validation by a certification body or an external EMS verifier;

     11) following the development of cleaner technologies;

     12) consideration of the environmental impact of the possible decommissioning of the installation at the design stage of the new plant and throughout its entire service life;

     13) applying industry benchmarking on a regular basis (comparing your company's performance with the best companies in the industry);

     14) Waste management system;

     15) in installations/facilities with multiple operators, the creation of associations in which the roles, responsibilities and coordination of operational procedures of each installation operator are defined in order to enhance cooperation between different operators;

     16) inventory of wastewater and air emissions.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Maintaining and following clear procedures in routine and non-routine situations and the appropriate allocation of responsibilities ensures that the company always meets the conditions of environmental resolution, achieves goals and solves tasks. EMS ensures continuous improvement of environmental performance.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     All significant input flows (including energy consumption) and output flows (emissions, discharges, waste) are interconnected by the operator in the short-medium and long-term aspects, taking into account the specifics of financial planning and investment cycles. This means, for example, that the application of short-term solutions for cleaning emissions and discharges ("at the end of the pipe") This can lead to a long-term increase in energy consumption and delay investments in potentially more beneficial environmental protection solutions.

     Under the current situation, the company has an effective environmental management system, which is aimed at solving environmental problems, in which all employees participate: from the manager to the worker. An established management system reduces emissions into the atmosphere and natural reservoirs and prevents soil pollution by increasing:

     disciplines of technology;

     the use of modern technology;

     implementation of technical re-equipment.

     Cross-media effects

     Environmental management methods are designed in such a way as to minimize the impact of the installation on the environment as a whole.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     The EMS components can be applied to all installations.

     The scope (for example, the level of detail) and the forms of EMS (both standardized and non-standardized) should correspond to the operational characteristics of the technological equipment used and the level of environmental impact.

Determining the cost and economic effectiveness of implementing and maintaining an existing EMS at the appropriate level is individual in each specific case.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     SAM can provide a number of advantages:

     improving the company's environmental performance;

     improving the basis for decision-making;

     improving the understanding of the company's environmental aspects;

     improving staff motivation;

     additional opportunities to reduce operating costs and improve product quality;

     improving environmental performance;

     reducing costs related to environmental violations, non-compliance with established requirements, etc.

4.1.2. Implementation of the energy Management system

     Description

     The implementation of the Energy management System (EnMS) at waste disposal facilities is aimed at systematic energy consumption management in order to increase energy efficiency, reduce costs and reduce environmental impact. The use of standards such as ISO 50001 makes it possible to integrate energy management into the overall strategy of the enterprise, optimize the consumption of electric and thermal energy at all stages of landfill operation: from lighting and ventilation to landfill gas collection and disposal systems.

     Technical description

     The EnMS includes audit and monitoring of energy consumption, setting goals and objectives in the field of energy conservation, developing measures to improve energy efficiency, as well as staff training and continuous process improvement. The implementation is accompanied by the installation of measuring instruments, automated accounting systems and data analysis software. The system is often combined with other BATS, such as landfill gas recovery, energy-efficient lighting, and variable frequency electric drives.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Reducing electricity and fuel consumption leads to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, including CO₂. In addition, it helps optimize the operation of compressors, pumps and other energy-consuming installations, and reduces the operational impact on the environment.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     The implementation of an energy management system can ensure:

     reduction of electricity consumption by 10 – 20 %;

     reduction of specific CO2 emissions by 5 – 15 %;

     improving the manageability of energy consumption through automation and analysis;

     improving the energy efficiency of landfill infrastructure.

     Cross-media effects

     Reducing energy consumption indirectly reduces the load on generating plants, reduces emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere, and reduces fuel and lubricants consumption. The amount of industrial wastewater generated during the operation of power systems is also decreasing. The cross-media effect is assessed as positive.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     The EnMS can be implemented at existing and planned waste disposal facilities, including landfills for solid waste and industrial waste. It does not require significant changes in technological processes, but requires the involvement of management personnel and the appropriate qualifications of specialists. The best results are achieved with automated accounting systems and an integrated approach to energy audit.

     In the USA, the Tessman Road Landfill in Texas has implemented an energy management system with digital control, which has reduced energy consumption by 15% and increased the transparency of operational processes.

     Economy

     Investments in the implementation of the EnMS pay off within 1-3 years due to energy savings and reduced operating costs. An additional economic effect may be a reduction in environmental charges and fines, an increase in the competitiveness of the enterprise and the attraction of "green" investments.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     The main factors are the increase in electricity and fuel tariffs, the requirements for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, the introduction of ESG standards and the desire for sustainable development.

4.2. Process control

     Description

     Technological process management at waste disposal facilities is a set of organizational and technical measures aimed at ensuring stable and controlled operation of the landfill, reducing negative environmental impact and compliance with environmental requirements without the need for major reconstruction of the facility. Sound management includes clear planning, record keeping, operational control, and the adoption of preventive measures to prevent air, water, and soil pollution.

     Technical description

     The key elements of process control at the landfill are:

     development and compliance with regulations for the reception, placement and compaction of waste, including restrictions on the types and properties of waste received;

     step-by-step filling of landfill maps to ensure consistent compaction and coating of waste with inert materials, which prevents the spread of odors, filtrate formation and gas emissions;

     ensuring sanitary order on the territory of the landfill, including cleaning of driveways, maintenance of drainage and degassing systems;

     maintaining operational records of incoming volumes of waste recorded at entry checkpoints, including weighing, visual inspection and, if necessary, laboratory analysis;

     regular training and instruction of personnel on environmental protection, industrial safety and sanitary requirements.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     The system control of the technological process ensures:

     reducing the formation and leakage of landfill gas and filtrate due to the proper laying and sheltering of waste;

     minimizing the risk of contamination of soil and water bodies, including by eliminating the intake of hazardous and unauthorized waste;

     reducing the dust and odor burden on the surrounding areas;

     reducing the likelihood of accidents, including spontaneous combustion or subsidence of the landfill body;

     increasing the level of industrial and environmental safety of the facility as a whole.

     Cross-media effects

     Effective process management can have an impact on various environmental components.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It is generally applicable to types of activities and technological processes according to the scope of the BAT handbook.

     Economy

     The organization of effective process management requires minimal costs, mainly related to the development of internal regulations, the remuneration of qualified personnel, the purchase of basic accounting and monitoring equipment, as well as the cost of covering materials. The implementation of such methods makes it possible to reduce operational risks, avoid fines for environmental violations and minimize potential costs for eliminating the consequences of negative impacts. Rational management also helps to extend the service life of the landfill and optimize its throughput.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Ensuring the reliability of the facility. The requirement of the environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

4.3. Environmental emissions management

     Description

     Waste disposal is accompanied by the formation of various types of emissions that have a negative impact on environmental components, including atmospheric air, surface and groundwater, as well as soil and vegetation cover. The main sources of emissions are landfill gas, filtrate, dust and polluted surface runoff. In this context, emission management is a set of technical and organizational measures aimed at preventing, reducing and controlling pollution, carried out within the framework of the existing technological scheme without the need for major reconstruction of the facility.

     Technical description

     Emission management methods include the following key areas:

     control of landfill gas formation and release through proper compaction of waste, regular application of inert coatings, as well as the organization of passive or active degassing;

     minimization of filtrate formation due to an effective drainage system, including the installation of slopes, drainage layers, intercepting ditches and protective coatings that prevent precipitation infiltration;

     preventing the spread of contaminated filtrate by collecting it, temporarily storing it in sealed containers and then transferring it for cleaning;

     implementation of a system for monitoring the state of atmospheric air, surface and groundwater, including regular sampling, laboratory analysis and operational monitoring of compliance with maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants;

     implementation of operational control over compliance with technological regulations for waste management, including the sequence of laying, coating, transportation and consideration of weather conditions.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     The comprehensive application of these measures ensures:

     reducing emissions of methane and other components of landfill gas, thereby reducing climate risks and increasing the level of industrial and environmental safety;

     prevention of contamination of water bodies and soils with filtrate, as well as reduction of the risk of pollutants entering underground horizons;

     improving the overall sanitary condition of the landfill and adjacent areas;

     creating conditions for an effective subsequent stage - the reclamation of the territory and its return to economic circulation.

4.3. Environmental emissions management

     Description

     Waste disposal is accompanied by the formation of various types of emissions that have a negative impact on environmental components, including atmospheric air, surface and groundwater, as well as soil and vegetation. The main sources of emissions are landfill gas, filtrate, dust and polluted surface runoff. In this context, emission management is a set of technical and organizational measures aimed at preventing, reducing and controlling pollution, carried out within the framework of the existing technological scheme without the need for major reconstruction of the facility.

     Technical description

     Emission management methods include the following key areas:

     control of landfill gas formation and release through proper compaction of waste, regular application of inert coatings, as well as the organization of passive or active degassing;

     minimization of filtrate formation due to an effective drainage system, including the installation of slopes, drainage layers, intercepting ditches and protective coatings that prevent precipitation infiltration;

     preventing the spread of contaminated filtrate by collecting it, temporarily storing it in sealed containers and then transferring it for cleaning;

     implementation of a system for monitoring the state of atmospheric air, surface and groundwater, including regular sampling, laboratory analysis and operational monitoring of compliance with maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants;

     implementation of operational control over compliance with technological regulations for waste management, including the sequence of laying, coating, transportation and consideration of weather conditions.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     The comprehensive application of these measures ensures:

     reducing emissions of methane and other components of landfill gas, thereby

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4.5. Control techniques and reduction of physical impact

4.5.1. Noise

     Noise, being a general biological irritant, affects not only the auditory analyzer, but also affects the structures of the brain, causing changes in various functional systems of the body. Among the numerous manifestations of the adverse effects of noise on the human body, there are: decreased speech intelligibility, unpleasant sensations, the development of fatigue and decreased productivity, the appearance of noise pathology.

     The effect of noise on operators inside the installation is not considered in this document.

     New installations can be characterized by low noise and vibration levels. Proper maintenance helps to prevent equipment from unbalancing (fans, pumps). The connections between the equipment can be specially designed to prevent or minimize noise transmission.

     In order to reduce the noise level and prevent its spread to the nearest area, various technical solutions for noise reduction can be applied.:

     implementing a noise reduction strategy;

     fencing of "noisy" operations/units;

     vibration isolation of operations/units;

     inner and outer skin made of shock-absorbing material;

     sound insulation of buildings to protect against any noisy operations related to material conversion equipment;

     the construction of walls to protect against noise, for example, the construction of buildings or natural barriers such as growing trees and shrubs between a protected area and "noisy" activities (or "noise-producing activities");

     cladding of air ducts and blowers located in soundproof buildings;

     closing of doors and windows of indoor premises;

     low-noise equipment.

     The listed measures are available for use at existing, upgraded and new facilities. If the above-mentioned technical solutions cannot be applied and if noise-emitting installations cannot be converted to separate buildings, secondary technical solutions are used, such as, for example, the construction of buildings or natural barriers such as growing trees and shrubs between the residential area and the source of active noise. The doors and windows of the protected space must be tightly closed during the operation of noise-emitting installations.

4.5.2. Vibration

     Vibration is the mechanical oscillatory motion of a system with elastic bonds. Vibration by the method of transmission to humans (depending on the nature of contact with vibration sources) is conventionally divided into local (local), transmitted to the hands of the worker, and general, transmitted through the supporting surfaces to the human body, in a sitting or standing position.

     General vibration in the practice of hygienic rationing is referred to as workplace vibration. In industrial environments, there is often a combined effect of local and general vibration.

     The most effective means of protecting a person from vibration is to eliminate direct contact with vibrating equipment. This is done through the use of remote control, industrial robots, automation and replacement of technological operations.

     Reducing the adverse effect of vibration of manual mechanized tools on the operator is achieved through technical solutions:

     reduction of vibration intensity directly at the source (due to design improvements);

     external vibration protection devices, which are elastic damping materials and devices placed between the vibration source and the hands of the human operator;

     vibration isolation of production facilities/units.

     In the conditions of landfill operation, various types of machinery and equipment can be sources of vibration: bulldozers, compactors, excavators, motor vehicles, as well as pumping and gas collection units. When working with such equipment for a long time, vibration can have a negative impact on the health of service personnel, especially when operating the equipment in a sitting or standing position.

     Vibration effects on landfill workers should be taken into account when designing and operating equipment. It is important to ensure that vibration levels comply with the regulatory requirements set out in sanitary regulations and state standards (for example, GOST 12.1.012-2004 "Vibration safety"). Special instruments are used to measure vibration, which make it possible to assess the levels of vibration acceleration and compare them with the maximum permissible values.

     The reduction of vibration effects at the landfill is achieved through the use of machines with improved designs, equipped with vibration-proof seats, anti-vibration supports and remote controls. When choosing a technique, it is recommended to give preference to models with proven vibration load reduction characteristics. It is also necessary to comply with the machine maintenance regulations, since worn components and assemblies can significantly increase the vibration level.

     An additional measure of protection is the provision of instruction and medical supervision for workers operating vibration-hazardous equipment, as well as the organization of alternating types of work to reduce the duration of exposure. Accounting and control of vibration effects at landfills should become an integral part of the occupational health and safety management system.

4.6. The smell

     Odors generated as a result of the activities of waste management facilities are one of the most acutely perceived forms of environmental pollution, especially in settlements located near such facilities. Despite the fact that the sources of odors often do not pose a direct threat to human health in the usual concentrations, they have a significant negative impact on the quality of life, cause public discontent and may indicate technological violations. Therefore, odor management methods are considered as an important element of the environmental safety system and are included in the list of the best available techniques that do not require technical modernization or reconstruction of the facility.

     The key environmental problem being solved in this context is the spread of odors resulting from the anaerobic decomposition of organic waste, violations of waste storage and treatment regimes, as well as insufficient tightness during transportation or unloading. Odor management methods are aimed at their prevention and control within the framework of existing technological processes through organizational, regulatory and operational solutions.

     Such methods include ensuring proper sanitary order at facilities: regular compaction and coating of waste with inert materials (for example, soil), timely removal and stabilization of the organic fraction, as well as monitoring the operation of drainage and ventilation systems. Compliance with waste collection and disposal regulations, including limiting the time of open storage of organic fractions, has a significant impact on the level of odors. Rational planning of the waste disposal schedule, especially in the warmer months, allows you to reduce the intensity of odors at no additional cost.

     Staff training in compliance with storage and processing conditions, as well as constant visual and olfactory monitoring of the condition of objects also plays an important role. The use of public complaints and incident logs as a feedback tool allows you to quickly respond to cases of the spread of odors and carry out preventive measures. These actions do not require retrofitting of production facilities and can be implemented at any stage of the facility's life cycle.

     According to the provisions of the Environmental Code, as well as sanitary requirements, facility operators are required to take measures to prevent excess odour levels outside the sanitary protection zone. Reducing the burden of odors is consolidated through the tools of industrial environmental control and the principle of preventive management.

     Odor management through organizational and technological measures is an effective and affordable method of minimizing negative environmental impacts. It is implemented without significant capital investments, can be adapted to the specifics of a particular facility and ensures compliance with modern requirements for environmental responsibility and sustainable waste management.

4.7. Waste management

     According to the Environmental Code and other regulations adopted in the Republic of Kazakhstan, all production and consumption waste must be collected, stored, neutralized, transported and buried, taking into account their impact on the environment.

     In order to prevent pollution of environmental components, the accumulation and disposal of waste is carried out in accordance with international standards and the current legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

     Waste management, as well as their placement during planned work, should ensure conditions under which, if necessary, temporary accumulation of industrial waste on an industrial site (until the waste is used in a subsequent technological process or sent to an object for disposal), the resulting waste does not have a harmful effect on the environment and the health of the company's personnel.

     The waste management system consists of the following:

     identification of waste generated;

     separate waste collection (segregation) in the places of their formation, taking into account the appropriate combination of types according to the degree and level of their danger in order to optimize further disposal methods, as well as the recycling of certain types of waste;

accumulation and temporary storage of waste until appropriate disposal;

     storage in labeled airtight containers;

     waste collection at specially designated and equipped sites;

     transportation is under strict control with the registration of the movement of all waste.

     Storage of waste in containers helps to prevent leaks, reduce their environmental impact, as well as the impact of weather conditions on the condition of waste.

5. Techniques that are considered when choosing

     the best available techniques

     This section of the BAT handbook provides a description of existing techniques for a specific application that are proposed for consideration in order to determine BAT.

     When describing the techniques, the assessment of the benefits of the introduction of BAT for the environment is taken into account; data on the limitations in the use of BAT, economic indicators characterizing BAT, as well as other information relevant for the practical application of BAT are provided.

     The main objective of the methods described in this section is to achieve minimum emissions and discharges, reduce the amount of waste using one or more techniques, in order to comprehensively prevent environmental pollution.

5.1. Technicians in the design, construction and arrangement of waste disposal facilities

5.1.1. Anti-filtration screen

     Description

     The fundamental element of the polygon is an anti-filtration screen (PFE). The main purpose of PFE is the effective protection of groundwater and soil from effluents and waste. Its design can vary depending on the technical and regulatory requirements for the type of landfill and its location. The structure can have a natural mineral clay soil or be created using additional materials.

     The screen can be single-layered (natural or synthetic), two-layered, composite (several heterogeneous layers). The main function is to ensure the safe storage of waste.

     Types of antifiltration materials and coatings:

     Single–layer geomembranes are used to seal landfills for storing liquid waste.;

     Single-layer screens. Their main difference is that single-layer screens, in addition to the geomembrane itself, also have a protective layer, and in some cases also a drainage material. Such a screen is mounted on a pre-packed layer of soil. Among the applications of such screens is their use for waste storage areas in the form of a natural protective barrier.;

     Synthetic screens. They are made of polymer sheet-type material. In this case, the entire screen structure is represented by a solid base that is resistant to moisture, a drainage system and a pipe system that is used to get rid of filtrate. They are used in landfills of solid waste, as well as in landfills of industrial waste.;

     Geomembrane screens have several applications. They can be laid on the base of the polygon in the form of a single-layer screen. It is also possible to use them as an addition to the mineral screen. The result is a composite structure that includes both types of screens. And in those landfills where a two-layer screen has already been installed, the geomembrane coating can be used as an additional protective layer, which can be placed not only below, but also above the system responsible for detecting leaks.;

     Combined screens combine one layer of geomembrane, another working layer, as well as two protective layers to protect the geomembrane from various types of damage. Such a composite coating is laid on a well-packed layer of soil. As a rule, standard bentonite mats serve as an additional working layer.

     Examples of using an anti-filtration screen:

     sealing the bottom of the landfill;

     sealing polygons with slopes;

     prevention of groundwater access (pressurized water).

     Figure 5.1. The process of laying the combined screen [27].

     Combined screens are distinguished by their versatility: they can be placed both on the bottom itself or part of it, and on slopes with a sufficiently large angle of inclination [27].

     Technical description

     In the EU, as a rule, according to the technical standards for the design of landfills, it is assumed that layers of various materials are laid to ensure the protective function of PFE. The lowest layer is a mineral screen – a layer of clay with a thickness of at least 60 cm, usually 1 – 1.5 m. After it, a technical barrier is evenly placed – a waterproofing membrane, a film of high–density polyethylene (HDPE) with a thickness of at least 1.5 mm, usually 2 - 2.5 mm. When placing a waterproofing layer, overlapping double seams with a control channel and overhead "extrusion seams" are most often used. The method of handling the material and the method of joining the film is determined by its manufacturer. To protect the waterproofing membranes from damage, a non-woven geotextile is installed on them - a non-woven polypropylene fabric.

     Further applied materials are the so-called bentonite mats. Bentonite mat is a geosynthetic clay sealer, a roll-type waterproofing material developed on the basis of natural bentonite clay. The mat is a sandwich building material consisting of two layers of geotextile, between which a layer of activated sodium bentonite is fixed. The top layer of this geotextile is made of high-strength woven polypropylene, the bottom layer is made of mechanically highly resistant geotextile. Both geotextiles are interconnected by stitching. Bentonite mats are used to insulate the bottom of polygons and cover polygons. Bentonite mats containing the aluminum mineral bentonite bind the surrounding soil moisture, swell and create a thin layer with additional sealing properties. The advantage of mats is simplicity and speed in handling and installation, extreme durability, high bond strength, controlled quality, as well as their environmental friendliness [23].

    Figure 5.2. An example of the placement of bentonite mats on an insulated surface.

     At the end of the slope, the bentonite mat is fixed in an anchor lock, and then filled in. The strips are connected by overlapping them, while the joint is additionally sprinkled with bentonite powder.

     HDPE waterproofing membranes and bentonite mats are placed both individually and in combination, the so-called combined sealing.

     The use of the following materials is regulated as anti-filtration screens in the Russian Federation:

     a single–layer clay screen (less than 0.5 m thick), on top of which a protective layer of local soil is laid (0.2 - 0.3 m thick);

     ground bitumen screen treated with organic binders or oil refining waste (0.2 – 0.4 m thick);

     the screen is made of latex (two-layer).

     During the construction of the landfill, drainage pipes with a diameter of 200-250 mm (made of propylene material) are laid. The last layer of drainage gravel with a grain size of 32/16 or 16/8 is filled in, filling the layer with a thickness of 30-50 cm–

     In this case, the entire screen structure is represented by a solid base that is resistant to moisture, a drainage system and a pipe system that is used to get rid of filtrate [26].

     Basic anti-filtration materials:

     The geomembrane/waterproofing membrane is a polyethylene film with a thickness of 0.75 to 3 mm.;

     Anti–filtration bentonite mats are two layers of geotextile with an inlay between the canvases of a hydrophobic bentonite element.

     The waterproofing membrane is made of high-density polyethylene (HDPE). The film contains about 97.5% polymer and 2% carbon black, antioxidants and heat stabilizers. It is intended for use in open air conditions. It has excellent resistance to chemicals and UV radiation and does not contain any additives that can leach out over time and make the insulation brittle. It has excellent chemical resistance, mechanical properties, stress corrosion resistance, dimensional stability, and resistance to thermal degradation.

     The use of a waterproofing membrane yields the following results:

     sealing the bottom of the landfill;

     sealing polygons with slopes;

     prevention of groundwater access (pressurized water).

     To seal polygons with slopes steeper than 1:3, a waterproofing membrane made of high-quality high-density polyethylene (HDPE) with surface roughening technology is used.

     Concrete mats cope with waste filtration, withstand static liquid pressure up to 7 atmospheres, and are also characterized by a high degree of resistance to wear and "leaching" of components.

     The requirements for an anti-filtration screen must be observed over the entire area of contact between the polygon body and the terrain.

     All materials used in the sealing system and the work on laying the layers must be subjected to careful quality control. For this check, a detailed quality control program should be developed, which is usually part of the process.

     The inspection program should include the criteria for inspections and the frequency of individual inspections. Detailed documentation of the results should be kept on the inspections carried out and their results. The inspection program must be approved prior to the start of construction work and as necessary, and based on the accumulated experience, it can be supplemented and modified during the construction process.

     The sealing system is controlled by geoelectrics. Before commissioning, the integrity of the landfill sealing system is checked.

     If the thickness of the waste layer is less than 0.5 m, the landfill should be equipped with a monitoring system that can monitor the integrity of the mineral shield and waterproofing membrane until the waste level reaches a height of at least 2 m above the compaction level of the landfill.

     After laying the first layer of waste with a thickness of about 2 m, the integrity of the sealing system is checked.

      Рисунок 5.3. Образец поперечного сечения герметизации полигона ЕС.

      Противофильтрационный экран обустроен в основании полигона.

    Figure 5.4. Scheme of using an anti-filtration screen in the Russian Federation [27].

     Environmental benefits achieved

     The technique demonstrates resistance to chemical effects, biological effects, and resistance to erosion. Through the introduction of technology, potential environmental benefits can be achieved: reduction of emissions into water and land; reduction of overall environmental risks when waste is disposed of in landfills.

     An anti–filtration screen is a long-term and, with proper installation and operation, reliable technical barrier to seepage of landfill and rainwater filtrate over the entire landfill area.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     When choosing the locations of a landfill at the initial planning stage, factors such as:

     finding a place at a distance from cities/towns, such as a career;

     untreated open spaces suitable for geological conditions (seismic stability);

     minimization of environmental impact, suitable hydrogeological conditions;

     treatment of the bottom and walls of the landfill – impermeability;

     drainage – water and gas management;

     waste distribution and compaction;

     covering with earth – prevention of ignition and drift of light waste particles;

     aesthetic view of the landscape.

     Principles of controlled waste disposal:

     The waste is systematically removed to a suitable, prepared area.;

     The waste is distributed and compacted in a layer about half a meter thick, in layers and at a slight slope up to a height of about 2 m.;

     Compacted waste is daily covered on top and sides with a layer of suitable soil about 20 cm thick.;

     After the final filling, the landfill is reclaimed, which makes it possible to use it effectively.

     The processes of creating landfills are:

     covering the topsoil and subsurface layers;

     mineral seal;

     sealing strips;

     surface drainage or pipe drainage systems.

     The standard technical equipment of the landfill includes:

     car scales;

     a ramp for washing cars.

     Communications:

     garages;

     warehouses;

     operational building;

     water supply and sewerage system (leaks and rainwater – waste water treatment plants);

     gas management;

     fencing of the landfill.

     Landfills must be equipped with a fence around the entire perimeter with a height of at least 2 m or another effective barrier to entry. The entrance to the landfill must be equipped with a lockable gate. The fence is complemented by a protective net to prevent the removal of light debris and some of the waste to the landfill.

     The design, construction of landfills and waste disposal are regulated by a set of technical standards. Landfills are divided into groups depending on the types and hazards of waste with different levels of technical safety and requirements for their provision. The main conditions for the design and construction of landfills are that landfills of all types can only be located in places where the highest groundwater level is at least 1 m below the level of the lowest sealing sealing layer of the landfill. In justified cases, the groundwater level can be reduced by gravity drainage. The developed survey program is part of the design documentation for the construction of engineering equipment, laying schemes and the results of laboratory soil studies. The protective shield device begins with the preparation of the soil, if bulk materials are used to level the soil, they are compacted to 97%. The integrity of the geomembrane and the absence of excess liquids and gases under its surface depend on the quality of the soil. It is important that the soil on which the screen is to be laid is not prone to deformation and shrinkage.

     Figure 5.5. Aerial view of polygon II (Sulkov district) [25].

     In the Russian Federation, the projected life of the landfill is at least 15-20 years. The required land area for MSW storage depends on the number of people served and the height of MSW storage. For example, for a city with a population of 0.5 million inhabitants, a landfill with an area of 20 to 60 hectares is required with a height of MSW storage, respectively, from 45 to 12 m. Landfills with a total height of more than 20 m and a load area of more than 10 tons/m2 (100 thousand tons/ha) are classified as highly loaded. An area composed of clays or heavy loams (with a groundwater depth of at least 2 m) is preferable for landfill placement. It is prohibited to use marshes with a depth of more than 1 m, as well as areas flooded by floodwaters, as a landfill. The storage area is divided into operation stages (taking into account the terrain) [17].

     At the storage site, at the base of the landfill, a foundation pit is provided, from which the soil is excavated for subsequent isolation of solid waste (intermediate and final). The depth of the excavation depends on the groundwater level (the bottom of the excavation should be 1 m above the groundwater level).

     Taking into account the terrain and the order of storage of solid waste, the site is divided into several pits; with a slope of more than 0.5 m, a cascade of pits is provided. The soil removed from the excavation of the first stage is placed in cavalliers around the perimeter of the landfill. The difference in the markings of the bases of two adjacent pits is not more than 1 m.

     The foundation of the excavation is clay with a thickness of at least 0.5 m (the water filtration coefficient is not more than 10 – 5 cm/sec). If the soil is characterized by a filtration coefficient of more than 10 – 5 cm/sec, artificial impenetrable screens are required. The purpose of creating the PFE is to limit the flow of filtrate to the underlying groundwater and prevent the influx of groundwater to a level above the base of the landfill.

     Cross-media effects

     The use of the described technique does not have negative effects on the environment. The use of the proposed technology makes it possible to prevent contamination of soil and groundwater and reduce the risks of environmental impact when storing waste at landfills.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     The landfill should be located outside the zones of protection of drinking water sources of levels I and II; floodplains, areas where it is economically unprofitable to protect the landfill from destruction due to excess bearing capacity or excessive soil deformations.

     The use of PFE is possible for all types of new and upgraded landfills (an appropriate condition for the equipment of a landfill).

     The technical requirements for landfills, including the conditions of their location, the technical safety of their operation, sealing, conditions for their closure and reclamation, as well as the requirements for their monitoring, must comply with the requirements of technical standards, such as those adopted in the Czech Republic.:

     CSN 83 8030 Waste disposal – Basic conditions for the design and construction of landfills;

     CSN 83 8032 Waste disposal – Sealing;

     CSN 83 8033 Waste disposal – Landfill Filtrate management;

     CSN 83 8034 Waste disposal – Landfill degassing;

     CSN 83 8035 Waste disposal – Closure and reclamation of landfills;

     CSN 83 8036 Waste disposal – Monitoring of landfills [24].

     PFE is used at all modern landfills in the EU. Depending on the characteristics of the landfill and the location of its location, various modifications of the sealing layers and different materials used are possible. The use of BAT does not prescribe the use of specific equipment, but takes into account the technical characteristics of the waste treatment facility, its geographical location and local environmental conditions.

     PFEs are used at modern landfills in the Russian Federation. The number of implementations is 75. Of these:

     storages intended for the storage of mining and/or processing waste, except for landfills – 13;

     mineral processing waste dumps – 6;

     processing industry waste dumps – 1;

     dumps of waste from electricity and steam production – 1;

     landfills for near–surface disposal of industrial and consumer waste, except MSW - 22;

     storages intended for storing waste from processing industries, except for landfills – 9;

     storage facilities designed to store waste from electricity and steam production, except landfills – 1;

     solid waste disposal facilities – 22.

     The possibility of application at existing waste disposal facilities [F].

     In the Czech Republic, 159 landfills are listed in the register of issued integrated environmental permits, all of them equipped with PFE [28].

     The shaft length is about 55 m, the shaft height is 2 m, the slopes are designed in a ratio of 1:2. The earthen shaft is made of homogeneous material and will require a minimum sealing material of up to 95%. For the construction of the shaft, you can use soil from an existing landfill or, possibly, soil from removed reclamation layers. The earthen shaft will be supported by a sealed foundation seam, again sealing the material to at least 95%. In the rear part (from the side of the access road), the earthen rampart will intersect with the embankment of the projected transport road. The removal of reclamation and sealing layers, as well as the construction of an earthen shaft, will determine the area of the planned expansion of the landfill. First, the joint of the landfill foundation will be modified. Sealing layers of the landfill will be laid on the prepared and sealed foundation seam in the following composition: bentonite mat, film integrity control system, 1.5 mm HDPE film thickness, protective geotextile with a density of 800 g/m2. The bentonite mat will comply with the condition established by the CSN 83 8030 standard [24], according to which the seepable amount of water per 1 m2 of area should be no more than 3.10 – 9 m3/s. Bentonite mat with a minimum thickness of 6 mm, for which the permeability coefficient must meet the condition kf < 1.5*10-11 m/s. A 1.5 mm thick HDPE film is laid on the bentonite mat. The bentonite mat and film will be connected in a strapping spur built around the perimeter of the shaft on one side, and on the other side a connection will be made with the existing film. The protective layer of the film will consist of geotextiles weighing at least 800 g/m2 or a CBR test (laboratory test for geotextile load-bearing capacity) of at least 10 kN. A permanent film integrity monitoring system with minimal functionality until the end of burial.

     A permanent sealing integrity monitoring system (geoelectric system) with minimal functionality is installed above the bentonite mat coating until the end of the landfill operation. This system is used to measure the integrity of the film after laying the drainage layer, or the integrity of the film can be measured in additional specific time periods in accordance with the needs of the construction investor or the requirements of the supervisory authorities. The geosynthetic elements will be connected into a screed, which will be made in an earthen shaft encircling the landfill.

     Economy

     The cost is quite high, transportation costs in the absence of local availability. A multi-stage installation process that requires special welding equipment and staff training. Construction complexity during installation on slopes and slopes, the specifics of fastening individual insulation layers. The risk of damage to the integrity of the PFE in the initial stage of landfill operation during waste disposal by machinery and improper production practices.

     Compared to other methods, high level of protection and durability. Erosion resistance, strength and elasticity in case of deformation of the landfill body (withstands static load during subsidence of the landfill). It can be used in various climatic conditions (withstands temperature fluctuations).

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Legislative requirements of the Republic of Kazakhstan, environmental protection measures.

5.1.2. Vertical anti-filtration curtain

     Description

     BAT for protection against pollution of groundwater and the geological environment, surface waters, and soils in the form of an antifiltration curtain is an antifiltration curtain that prevents pollutants from waste, including filtration waters, from entering environmental components [F].

     Scope of application

     Applicable for surface waste disposal facilities:

     landfills of mining waste; enrichment waste; waste from manufacturing; waste from electricity and steam production;

     storage facilities intended for storing (other than landfills) waste from mining and/or processing of minerals; processing industries; electricity and steam production;

     landfills for near-surface disposal of industrial and consumer waste, except MSW;

     solid waste disposal facilities.

     Technical description

     An anti-filtration curtain is created as an alternative to an anti-filtration screen or an addition to it.

     Methods of vertical anti-filtration protection are determined taking into account the ability of waste to undergo physical, chemical and biological transformations, as well as taking into account their aggregate state and physical shape, and the hazardous properties that the components of the waste may exhibit.

     The anti-filtration curtain is designed and constructed taking into account the entire service life and post-operational maintenance of the waste disposal facility.

     Materials for anti-filtration curtains are selected based on their resistance to the substances that make up the waste, as well as to physical influences (changes in humidity and temperature). Vertical anti-filtration curtains are created from natural and (or) artificial materials.

     In order to ensure the quality of vertical anti-filtration protection, work is underway to control the technology of its construction.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Environmental advantages: it has a strong structure; it insulates from harmful substances entering groundwater.

     Application in special natural conditions: not detected.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     Technology benchmarks:

     Absence of filtration water leaks through the anti-filtration curtain - absence of changes in the quality of groundwater under the influence of the waste disposal facility at the control points provided for by the environmental monitoring and pollution program. The possibility of repairing and restoring waterproofing properties.

     Waterproofing walls are used in various construction projects to prevent the penetration and contamination of groundwater. Types of wall sealing: Various technologies are used to ensure stability and sealing, such as vibrating, cemented, drilled and sheet-pile walls.

     When isolating the environment: thin sealing walls are successfully used to isolate two terrestrial environments and prevent the spread of polluted waters. The stability of the underground trench wall is maintained using bentonite suspension. In difficult conditions, especially in the case of chemical contamination of water, the reliability and durability of sealing underground walls can be further improved by installing a geomembrane. These are vertical strips of HDPE film connected by special locks. They can be used at depths up to 30 m. For smaller depths, there is a method of installing a continuous strip of a similar film [29].

     Cross-media effects

     Resource- and energy-saving advantages are determined by the design of the anti-filtration curtain.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     Limitations for the introduction and use of the technology: determined by the design of the anti-filtration curtain.

     It is possible to use it at existing waste disposal facilities.

     It is widely used in practice, both for existing enterprises and landfills as part of pollution prevention measures and as part of limiting the spread of historical pollution. It is also used in the elimination of accidents of spills of substances (Larsen sheet pile, benzene spill accident, 3/25, CR). It was introduced in the Turov coal mining area, Republic of Poland.

      Рисунок 5.6. Рекультивация токсичного полигона с использованием изоляционной стены ECOSOL (Сполана Нератовице) [29].

     Figure 5.7. Geoisolation of a landfill with sealing of an underground wall (Rock cut) [29].

     Technically unsecured landfills pose a serious environmental problem. These are mostly old landfills that do not have insulated bottoms and sides, which do not provide drainage of seeping water and groundwater control. The remediation technical solution, which aims to stabilize pollution, is to prevent water from entering the landfill, prevent filtrate from entering the groundwater using vertical or horizontal barriers, as well as the construction of active barriers such as an anti-filtration curtain.

     It is implemented in the Russian Federation in storage facilities intended for storing waste from processing industries, except for landfills, in storage facilities intended for storing waste from electricity and steam production.

     Economy

     The advantages are economic: they are determined by the design of the anti-filtration curtain.

     The implementation period is up to 6 months (medium–term implementation period).

     During the liquidation of the consequences of emergency spills, the implementation period is reduced to the technically necessary.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     The requirement of environmental legislation for the protection of groundwater and soil from pollution. Measures to contain large accidental spills of dangerous substances and the threat of water pollution.

5.1.3. Strengthening of external slopes of enclosing devices during their burial in bulk

     Description

     The main objectives of ensuring the stability of enclosing devices (slopes) and protection against pollution of surface waters and soils are measures to strengthen them [F].

     Technical description

     Enclosing devices are designed and constructed taking into account the entire period of operation and post-operational maintenance of the landfill.

     The method of strengthening the slopes is chosen based on the angle of the slope and the need to ensure resistance to physical influences (changes in humidity, temperature, etc.) and mechanical influences (deformations).

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Environmental benefits:

     exclusion of waste from entering the soil surface and surface waters;

     reduction of inorganic dust emissions from the surface of enclosing devices.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     At the design stage, embankments and dams are arranged and compacted in layers to achieve the prescribed degree of compaction (up to 97%). The slopes of embankments and ditches are designed with a slope of 1:3 towards the landfill and 1:2 towards the slope. The bottom and slopes of the landfill are compacted. Perimeter retaining ditches are used to strengthen the outer slopes. They prevent rainwater from entering the landfill body. Supporting the foundations and strengthening the landfill surface are also important to create a stable base layer and achieve the overall stability of the landfill. This is crucial in places where the new landfill will be built on a soft surface or in a landslide risk area.

     The surface layer of the tires can perform a protective function.

     Cross-media effects

     Resource and energy-saving advantages are determined by the way the slopes are reinforced.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     Applicable for surface waste disposal facilities:

     mining waste dumps;

     enrichment waste;

     waste from manufacturing industries;

     waste from electricity and steam production;

     storage facilities intended for storing (other than landfills) waste from mining and/or processing of minerals; processing industries; electricity and steam production;

     landfills for near-surface disposal of industrial and consumer waste, except MSW;

     solid waste disposal facilities.

     The application in special climatic conditions is determined by the method of strengthening the slopes. Application in special natural conditions: not detected.

     Limitations for the introduction and use of technology: determined by the way the slopes are reinforced.

     The number of implementations in the Russian Federation is 39 [F]. Of these:

     landfills for near–surface disposal of industrial and consumer waste, except MSW - 18;

     storages intended for storing waste from processing industries, except for landfills – 5;

     storages intended for storing waste from electricity and steam production, except landfills – 2;

     solid waste disposal facilities – 14.

     Control indicators of the technology: no waste entering the soil surface, minimization of inorganic dust emissions from the surface of enclosing devices – no changes in the quality of soils and atmospheric air under the influence of the waste disposal facility at the control points provided for by the environmental monitoring and pollution program.

     The EU has established that the requirements for an anti-filtration screen must be observed over the entire area of contact between the body of the landfill and the terrain, including the side slopes. The method of fastening the anti-filtration screen material to the slope is determined by the manufacturer of the material.

     In the Czech Republic, 159 polygons are listed in the register of issued complex permits, their slopes are equipped with an external fence [28].

      Рисунок 5.8. Пример укрепления внешних откосов ограждающих устройств [30].

      Рисунок 5.9. Примеры покрытия откосов полигона противофильтрационным экраном [27].

      Слой шин выполняет защитную функцию. Шины используются как технологический материал, т.е. для стабилизации и защиты уплотнителя, а не как дренажный слой. Используемые шины должны быть примерно одинаковыми. Запрещается использовать шины от тракторов или грузовиков, а также шины с дисками. Использованные шины возможно наполнить дренажным материалом.

    Figure 5.10. Using tires as a process material

     Economy

     The economic advantages are determined by the way the slopes are reinforced. In addition to the cost of excavation, the use of used tires as a weighting element of the structure provides significant savings. Thus, their use is being introduced as structural reinforcement elements. Possibility of application at existing facilities: available.

     Implementation period: 1-2 years.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Legislative requirements of the Republic of Kazakhstan, including building codes and regulations for the installation of landfills.

5.1.4. Landfill gas collection (degassing) system at solid waste disposal facilities

     Description

     A landfill gas collection system is provided to ensure safe and controlled operation of the landfill.

     Technical description

     Landfill degassing systems can be of various designs.:

     vertical – boreholes, collector wells;

     horizontal – drainage, horizontal drilling;

     combined – drains, vertical wells or wells.

     In addition, it is also possible to divide the systems at the time of construction into systems that are built continuously with the creation of the landfill, and systems that are built only after the completion of the landfill. The construction of gas collection systems combined with the creation of a landfill requires careful supervision and careful handling so as not to damage the drainage system. Various types of horizontal drainage can be laid during waste disposal: perforated plastic pipes (filled in), trenches filled with coarse gravel, freely laid inverted U-shaped precast concrete elements, panels or concrete slabs stacked to form prefabricated channels [25].

     In new landfills where sealing requirements are met, any subsequent drainage installation is dangerous, as insufficient care and supervision can lead to insulation punctures, which will cause irreparable damage to the entire expensive structure. Therefore, for such polygons, a system is designed in principle, which is built simultaneously with loading, purposefully selected in accordance with the shape of the polygon. The optimal combination of gas collection and leak pipes saves the cost of two separate collection networks.

     The choice and design of the degassing system are determined by:

     the shape of the polygon;

     the method and speed of waste loading;

     by gradually expanding and connecting individual sections of the polygon.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Reducing the harmful effects of gaseous emissions reduces:

     negative impact on vegetation at the landfill and the surrounding area;

     danger of explosion or suffocation in an enclosed space, danger of spontaneous combustion;

     the unpleasant smell of trace amounts of landfill gas.

     Gases that spontaneously form in the body of the landfill create excessive pressure inside the landfill, which leads to spontaneous leakage of gas into the environment. Landfill gas penetrates the surface of the landfill body and significantly reduces the natural thickness of the aerobic soil layer.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     The composition of biogas varies depending on the age of the landfill and the pumping rate. It consists mainly of methane and carbon dioxide. The optimal conditions for the formation of methane are pH 6.5 – 8, humidity above 20-30% and temperature 25-40 °C.

     The amount of biogas depends on the type of waste, its storage technology, the thickness of the landfill, the ratio of total carbon to total nitrogen in the waste, the presence of substances toxic to microorganisms, the neutralizing ability of the medium and, in particular, humidity, which affects the course of bacterial reactions [25].

     Landfill gas can be used as fuel either by direct combustion (drying plants, greenhouses), or in gas engines to generate electricity, or as a substitute for natural gas (SNG – subst. natur. gas). For these purposes, the gas must be dewatered (dried). This happens automatically by cooling (the sublimation process) after pumping from the landfill.

     Before completing the landfill gas station project, it is necessary to conduct a trial pumping, which will determine the landfill gas capacity, gas composition and, consequently, the possibilities of use, as well as the data necessary for the final gas management project. For subsequent drilling sites, at least 3 test wells must be drilled (which can then be used in the operating system). During the tests, the optimal distance of the wells is determined. Testing is also necessary for landfills with a complete, continuous collection network. The test result will determine whether the gas can be used economically and efficiently, as well as determine the approximate time for capacity build-up. According to the test results, if necessary, a gas cleaning device is also designed [25].

     Cross-media effects

     The installation of a degassing system determines the further use of the collected landfill gas. Emissions from landfill gas combustion are possible.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     The disposed waste is subjected to anaerobic decomposition at the landfill, resulting in the release of gas. The process of gradual biological degradation of organic waste at a landfill is a sequence of several separate phases with characteristic conditions and products. These processes occur completely spontaneously.:

     aerobic stage – organic matter is broken down by aerobic microorganisms in the presence of oxygen in the air (for a short period of time);

     Anaerobic non-methanogenic stage – in this so-called "acidic" phase or also in the "acid-forming fermentation" phase, aliphatic acids are produced by anaerobic organisms (this phase lasts from several weeks to several months).

     If the landfill is deep and compacted, then the excess amount of air cannot get inside the landfill layers when the barometric pressure changes, the methanogenic process develops further, and the landfill turns from a dangerous air pollutant into an effective natural filter.

     The anaerobic stage of the methanogenic process can take place in two states:

     The anaerobic stage is the unstable methanogenic stage, i.e. the initial stage of the development of methanogenic microorganisms;

     The anaerobic stage of methanogenic stabilization is a stage with an abundantly multiplying culture of methanogenic microorganisms. The methanogenic phase stabilizes within six months to two years, passing into a stable state of methanogenesis – the formation of methane.

     The anaerobic methanogenic stabilized phase continues until the substrate is completely depleted. The formation of methane is stabilized with the simultaneous formation of carbon dioxide. It proceeds more slowly than the acidification phase, and the moisture content of the substrate is a very important parameter. Temperatures from 35 to 50 °C are reached, and a drop in temperature below 30 °C has a negative effect on the methanogen population. The methane content at this stage ranges from 52 to 70% by volume, carbon dioxide from 25 to 45%, nitrogen from 1 to 3% (peak levels are 74% methane and 26% carbon dioxide) [25].

     The landfill degassing system is constantly being built based on the results of gasometric surveys by floor, depending on the intensity of landfill gas formation. As part of the implementation of the gas disposal plan, approximately 9 wells with a diameter of 800 mm are being built. A perforated pipe made of synthetic material with a size of 110 is installed into the well to its entire depth, and backfilling is performed with crushed stone of a fraction of 16 – 32 mm. New gas wells are also being drilled, which are connected via a pumping station to existing cogeneration plants. The gas pumping station is equipped with a pair of superchargers and serves for forced pumping of landfill gas from the landfill body. The composition of landfill gas is also constantly analyzed at the pumping station.

     Quality and quantity control of landfill gas at the pumping station (constantly), quality and quantity control of landfill gas (twice a year at sites that will not be connected to the pumping station system) [28].

     Economy

     Depending on the method used, the cost of the equipment is individual in each case.

     It depends on local conditions, the type of landfill, its operating rules, the climatic zone of location and the use of the energy potential of landfill gas.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Environmental requirements for environmental protection, economic benefits from the energy use of landfill gas (methane). Safe operation of the landfill, prevention of explosions and fires.

5.1.5. Wastewater discharge system (drainage system)

     Description

     The drainage system is used to manage wastewater at the landfill to prevent contamination of surface and groundwater. Rainwater entering the landfill surface becomes seepage water (filtrate).

     Technical description

     Wastewater from the landfill is discharged through a flat filter (30 cm of quarry aggregate) into a perforated tube with discharge into a drainless tank (the tank capacity is calculated based on the characteristics of the landfill and local conditions, the retention volume in m3), the filtrate is pumped from the tank back through the drain pipe to the landfill. The filtrate storage tank must be insulated with high-density HDPE polyethylene film, and equipped with a maximum level alarm.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Provision of decomposition processes at the landfill, support for methane formation. Prevention of contamination of surface and groundwater, soil in the landfill area.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     Separate collection of rainwater from the roofs of administrative and technological facilities is possible from the territory of the landfill. Such waters are considered conditionally uncontaminated and can be used as technological without purification, or be directly released into the natural environment. Rainwater from the parking of vehicles and sewage from the washing of vehicles must be drained into a well with an oil trap.

     The process of gradual biological degradation of organic waste in a landfill is a sequence of several separate phases with characteristic conditions and products. The amount and contamination of the filtrate are determined by the characteristics of the landfill, the processes taking place in it, and the climatic conditions. Filtration waters in the anaerobic non-methane stage of the landfill, in the so-called "acidic" phase or also in the "acid-forming fermentation" phase are polluted with a high content of heavy metals, since aggressive fatty acids dissolve the metal parts of the waste. To prevent filtrate spills, it is important to comply with the operating rules of the drainage system, its tightness, and timely monitoring of the tightness of the filtrate receiver tank. In the stabilized anaerobic methanogenic phase, it is important to maintain the moisture content of the substrate, which is supported by the spill of the filtrate returned to the landfill.

     Cross-media effects

     Electricity consumption by the pump when pumping the filtrate collected by the drainage system back to the landfill.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     Applicable for near-surface waste disposal facilities.

     Internal drainage system.

     Surface runoff with a thickness of at least 0.5 m, filtration coefficient k >1.10-4 m.s-1. Surface drainage with a thickness of at least 0.30 m, filtration coefficient k > 1.10-4 m.s-1 supplemented by tubular drains with a nominal diameter (DN) of at least 200 mm.

     The internal drainage system will consist of a surface runoff fraction of 16 – 32 mm or 11 – 22 mm. 300 mm s min. permeability kf > 1.10-4 m/s, which will be complemented by a drainage system and gravity drains seeping water through prefabricated HDPE drains DA 225, PN 10, which will be connected to existing HDPE drainage drains and subsequently to an existing concrete underground reservoir for collecting seeping water [28].

     Economy

     Depending on the method used, the cost of the equipment is individual in each case. It depends on local conditions, the type of landfill, its operating rules, the climatic zone of location, the nature and intensity of precipitation.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Regulatory documents on the development of landfills, legislative requirements.

5.1.6. Monitoring wells

     Description

     Monitoring wells are used to verify compliance with the operating conditions of the landfill. Verification of the operability of all measures designed to protect the environment and control the fulfillment of the conditions set in the permit for the integrated placement of landfills.

     Technical description

     Monitoring of groundwater quality and monitoring of the quantity and quality of landfill gas is carried out at control wells according to the monitoring program.

     The monitoring program focuses on monitoring the quality and quantity of groundwater (twice a year), and quality control of filtration water (once a year).

     Environmental benefits achieved

     The effectiveness of measures designed to protect the environment during the operation of the landfill.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     Control of the quality and quantity of landfill gas at the pumping station (constantly), control of the quality and quantity of landfill gas (twice a year in areas that are not connected to the pumping station system), control of the amount of process water (once a month), monitoring of meteorological conditions indicators (daily), monitoring of the level of seepage of water in sedimentation tank (daily), monitoring of the amount of recycled water filtrate to the landfill (daily), monitoring of landfill filling (once a year), monitoring of landfill body deformations (1 per year), inspection of the water seepage tray (1 time in 2 years).

     Cross-media effects

     The lack of regular monitoring can lead to violations of the landfill's operating rules, both technologically and environmentally.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It is generally applicable to types of activities and technological processes according to the scope of the BAT handbook.

     Figure 5.11. Degassing well at the inert waste landfill (Libcice).

     Economy

     Depending on the method used, the cost of the equipment is individual in each case.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Legal requirements, regulatory requirements for the operation of the landfill. Technological necessity.

5.2. Technicians in the operation of waste disposal facilities

5.2.1. BAT aimed at preparatory operations

5.2.1.1. Preparation of solid waste for burial by sorting them with extraction of resource fractions and organic biodegradable materials

     Description

     Sorting and extraction of resource fractions of waste and biodegradable materials suitable for further disposal or neutralization.

     Technical description

     A brief description of the technology. The sorting of solid waste with the extraction of resource fractions and organic biodegradable materials refers to BAT if the degree of extraction of secondary material resources is at least 15% by weight, the degree of extraction of screening with a predominant content of organic substances is at least 25% by weight [F].

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Environmental benefits:

     reduction of the mass and volume of waste disposed, as a result of a decrease in biogas emissions into the atmosphere and the volume of filtration water formation;

     reducing the release of toxic compounds (heavy metals, etc.) into the environment.

     Sorting waste before it is placed at the landfill increases regulatory space, reduces the risks of accidents (failure of landfill equipment) and fires.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     In Russian practice, only waste equivalent to MSW is allowed to be disposed at municipal landfills. Industrial waste allowed for joint storage with solid waste should not be explosive and self-igniting and should not have a humidity of more than 85%; the toxicity of the waste mixture should not exceed the toxicity of solid waste (according to the analysis of water extraction). Industrial waste of hazard class IV, accepted without restrictions by landfills, is characterized by the content of toxic substances in the aqueous extract (1 liter of water per 1 kg of waste) at the level of the filtrate from solid waste and should have a size of no more than 250 mm [31].

     Technology benchmarks: the degree of extraction of secondary material resources is at least 15% by weight, the degree of extraction of screening with a predominant content of organic substances is at least 25% by weight.

     In European practice, in addition to solid waste, other non-hazardous types of waste can be placed at the same landfill, in specialized landfill sites, for example, construction waste, sewage sludge, etc. In addition, composting sites for plant and other biodegradable organic waste are being designed at landfills. Waste sorting and storage areas for secondary raw materials are also being designed at landfills [28].

     Cross-media effects

     Resource- and energy-saving advantages:

     the possibility of using the resource or energy potential of sorted waste components;

     increasing the sustainability of a closed-loop economy.

     The condensed vapors and water generated during composting are drained into a separate pan and used to moisten the compost. The compost produced at the landfill can be used for landfill reclamation, or as an addition to landfill layers.

     When placing the sorting line in a closed heated room, additional energy costs for maintenance mechanisms (conveyors, separators, etc.), heating and ventilation costs are possible. It is possible that the air from production facilities/premises will need to be pre-cleaned from odor (biofilter consumption).

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It is applicable for solid waste disposal facilities, both operated and new.

     Limitations for the implementation and use of the technology: not identified.

     The technology is applicable if there are sufficient areas.

     Implementation period: up to 1 year (medium-term implementation period) [F].

   Figure 5.12. Examples of mechanized MSW sorting.

     The sorting lines can be supplied in both closed and open versions. Open sorting lines are supplied without a closed sorting cabin, without air conditioning and heating. This type is used for small volumes of solid waste. The final horizontal press can be replaced with a small press packer.

     Closed sorting lines provide a higher level of technology, greater operator comfort, higher productivity and are used for large volumes of household waste [32].

     Economy

     The advantages are economic:

     prolongation of the landfill's service life due to the transfer of part of the waste for disposal or neutralization;

     the possibility of implementing secondary material resources.

     The secondary economic effect is the creation of jobs, both at the landfill itself and in subsequent waste management units.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Safety aspects of landfill operation, reducing the overall risks of uncontrolled reactions and the risk of fires. Legislative requirements for increasing the sorting of composite solid waste suitable for recycling or energy utilization.

5.2.1.2. Crushing of lump waste before burial

     Description

     BAT is applicable for solid waste disposal facilities, surface landfills for production and consumption waste. The technique reduces the risk of damage to protective anti-filtration screens. Improves the performance of waste compaction during its placement.

     Technical description

     Crushing of lump waste is BAT if it is used in combination with sorting to extract valuable components suitable for disposal. Waste crushing mechanisms are used.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Environmental benefits:

     The technology provides preparation for the disposal of large-sized waste, and also reduces the explosion and fire hazard of waste with such properties.;

     shredding followed by sorting reduces the amount of waste sent to disposal.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     Technology benchmarks:

     ensuring grinding to a fraction with a grain size of no more than 200 mm;

     extraction of secondary material and (or) energy resources [F].

     The specific gravity (density) of mixed household waste in containers and tanks, depending on the composition, usually ranges from 200 to 300 kg/m3. When disposing of waste, it is necessary to compact them as much as possible from the point of view of safety and ecology, which can be achieved, among other things, by crushing them and then dividing them into separate fractions.

     Cross-media effects

     Resource- and energy-saving advantages:

     the possibility of using mobile installations;

     When shredding waste, it is possible to isolate target fractions and/or components for disposal.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It should not be used in outdoor areas with an air temperature below -20 °C. Noise level limitation. The possibility of application at existing waste disposal facilities.

     Implementation period: up to 1-2 weeks (short-term implementation period).

      Рисунок 5.13. Грохот грубой очистки Lokotrack ST2.8 на полигоне ТБО. Слева горка с промежуточной фракцией, впереди – надфракция, справа – наименьшая подфракция[33].

      Рисунок 5.14. Подающий конвейер для транспортировки измельченных отходов на сита [33].

    Figure 5.15. The smallest of the sorted fractions of crushing solid waste [33].

     Economy

     Economic advantages:

     Due to a decrease in the amount of waste disposed and an increase in the density of waste in the array, the capacity of the landfill increases, which leads to a reduction in the cost of waste disposal.;

     The technique allows you to obtain secondary material resources suitable for recycling.

     Limitations for the implementation and use of the technology: relatively high cost [F].

     The driving force behind the implementation

     The economic motivation of the landfill operator.

5.2.1.3. Preparation of solid waste for burial by pressing and (or) briquetting

     Description

     BAT for protection against pollution of soils, atmospheric air and other environmental components in the form of preparation of solid waste for burial by pressing and briquetting them.

     Technical description

     Pressure treatment of waste produced in order to increase the density and reduce the volume of waste disposed, followed by briquetting.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Environmental benefits:

     increasing the landfill's capacity;

     reducing the volume of filtration water formation;

     providing protection against the penetration of insects, birds, rodents;

     slowing down anaerobic processes and, as a result, reducing the release of pollutants into the atmospheric air;

     exclusion of scattering of light waste fractions.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     Technology benchmarks: not revealed.

     Cross-media effects

     The laying of briquettes makes it possible to achieve a smooth and uniform surface, which simplifies the soil laying operation and reduces its use. Reducing the amount of material for filling waste and saving on transportation.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It is generally applicable to types of activities and technological processes according to the scope of the BAT handbook.

     Figure 5.16. Sample of equipment for briquetting solid waste [34].

     Economy

     Economic advantages:

     extending the service life of the landfill by reducing the volume of waste entering the disposal;

     reduction of transportation costs when delivering waste to the location using special equipment;

     reducing the cost of pressing waste in the absence of materials necessary for strapping briquettes, as well as the likelihood of briquettes breaking due to their high density.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Economic motives for the introduction of the landfill operator, with the availability of pre-sorting and briquetting.

5.2.2. BAT aimed at waste disposal

5.2.2.1. Hydraulic spraying during the disposal of waste from extraction and enrichment of natural resources in bulk

     Description

     The technique is used for the disposal of waste in landfills of mining waste; landfills of mineral processing waste.

     Technical description

     Hydraulic spraying is carried out in the process of compaction of waste. Water, filtration, process and other waters can be used as an irrigation fluid. Filtration and drainage waters after purification are pumped from storage tanks to the upper site of the waste disposal site, where they are sprayed over the surface of the waste array.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Reducing dust emissions into the environment.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     Provides dust suppression when placing dusty waste in bulk.

     Minimization of inorganic dust emissions, absence of changes in atmospheric air quality under the influence of a waste disposal facility at control points provided for by the environmental monitoring and pollution program.

     Cross-media effects

     Water and electricity consumption.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     No restrictions on the application were found.

     The number of implementations is 5. Of these, there are 5 landfills of mining waste [F].

     Economy

     Depending on the method used, the cost of the equipment is individual in each case.

     There is no need to build enclosing dams and the possibility of placing more waste in landfills on the same area than in storage facilities.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Legal requirements for environmental protection, technological regulatory requirements.

5.2.2.2. Compaction of waste during its burial in bulk