On approval of the handbook on the best available Waste Recovery techniques

Resolution of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated June 2, 2026 No. 206

In accordance with paragraph 6 of Article 113 of the Environmental Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan DECIDES:

     1. Approve the attached handbook on the best available Waste recovery techniques.

     2. This resolution shall enter into force from the date of its signing.

The Prime Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan

O. Bektenov

Approved by Resolution No. 206 of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan on June 2, 2026

Handbook on the best available Waste Recovery techniques

     List of diagrams/drawings

     List of tables

     Glossary

     The preface

     Scope of application

     Principles of application

     1. General information

     1.1. Overview of the waste recovery industry

     1.2. Types of waste and their formation

     1.2.1. Medical and biological waste

     1.2.2. Hazardous waste

     1.2.3. Oil-containing waste

     1.2.4. Organic waste

     1.2.5. Waste of electrical and electronic equipment

     1.2.6. Solid industrial waste

     1.2.7. Liquid waste

     1.2.8. Other waste

     1.2.9. Mining and metallurgical waste

     1.2.10. Plastic and rubber products

     1.2.11. Municipal waste

     1.2.12. Industrial and construction waste

     1.3. The main environmental problems

     1.3.1. Waste management generated after recovery processes and not subject to further recovery

     1.3.2. Emissions of pollutants into the atmospheric air

     1.3.3. Discharges of pollutants into water bodies

     1.3.4. Impact on land resources

     1.4. Energy consumption

     2. Methodology for determining the best available techniques

     2.1. Determination, principles of BAT selection

     2.2. Criteria for attributing techniques to NDT

     2.3. Economic aspects of BAT implementation

     2.3.1. Approaches to the economic assessment of BAT

     2.3.2. Methods of economic assessment of BAT

     2.3.3. Investment justification of costs

     2.3.4. Cost-benefit analysis

     2.3.5. The ratio of costs and key economic indicators

     2.3.6. Cost increase

     2.3.7. Cost-benefit ratio

     2.3.8. Payments and fines for negative impact on the environment

     2.3.9. Calculation "on installation"

     3. Applied processes: technological, technical solutions currently used

     3.1. Auxiliary operations in waste management (reception and preparation of waste for recovery)

     3.2. Mechanical and physical waste treatment

     3.3. Biological waste treatment

     3.4. Physico-chemical waste treatment

     3.5. Current levels of emissions to the environment

     3.6. Energy efficiency

     4. Common best available techniques for preventing and/or reducing emissions and resource consumption

     4.1. Environmental Management System (EMS)

     4.2. Energy Management System (EnMS)

     4.3. Emissions monitoring

     4.3.1. Monitoring of atmospheric air emissions

     4.3.2. Monitoring of discharges into water bodies

     4.4. Auxiliary operations in waste management

     4.4.1. Reception and control of incoming waste

     4.4.2. Preliminary waste treatment

     4.5. Water management

     4.5.1. Handling of reverse osmosis plant concentrate

     4.5.1.1. Secondary use of salt concentrate in brine cooling systems

     4.5.1.2. Production of secondary raw materials - dry salts from water treatment concentrate

     4.6. Reduction of physical impact levels

     4.7. The smell

     5. Techniques that are considered when choosing the best available techniques

     5.1. BAT aimed at the implementation of automated control and management systems in the technological process of waste recovery

     5.1.1. Implementation of automated systems for fire detection and prevention

     5.1.2. Application of automated process control systems (automated control systems)

     5.2. NDT, in the field of energy and resource conservation

     5.2.1. Using heat recovery

     5.2.2. Application of frequency-controlled drives and energy-efficient compressors

     5.2.3. Use of secondary energy resources

     5.3 BAT aimed at preventing and reducing unorganized emissions

     5.3.1. Minimizing the number of potential unorganized sources of emissions

     5.3.2. Leak Detection and Repair Program

     5.4. Machinery for mechanical and physical waste treatment

     5.4.1. Impact of force fields (gravitational, centrifugal, electric, magnetic)

     5.4.2. Filtering

     5.4.3. Thermal desorption

     5.4.4. Thermomechanical phase separation

     5.4.5. Barodestructive technology of rubber products that have lost their consumer properties, including rubber tires, tires and chambers

     5.4.6. Shredding

     5.4.7. Method of re-melting polymer waste to produce products by extrusion or injection molding

     5.4.8. Sterilization of medical waste

     5.4.9. Distillation (regeneration)

     5.4.10. Condensation and cryogenic condensation

     5.5. Biological waste treatment equipment

     5.5.1. Bioremediation

     5.5.2. Phytoremediation

     5.5.3. Disposal by bioenergetic drying method in a closed loop

     5.5.4. Composting technology

     5.5.5. Technology of fermentation of organic waste collected separately or separated during sorting of solid household waste

     5.5.6. Technology of drying organic waste collected separately

     5.5.7. Cogeneration

     5.6. Equipment for physico-chemical waste treatment

     5.6.1. Adsorption

     5.6.2. Selective dissolution (ion exchange purification)

     5.6.3. Sorption method

     5.6.4. Stabilization

     5.6.5. Inertia of hazardous waste (in-situ and ex-situ)

     5.6.6. The use of humic preparations

     5.6.7. Encapsulation

     5.6.8. Pyrolysis of waste

     5.6.9. Processing of liquid hydrocarbon waste by thermocatalytic cracking

     5.7. BAT aimed at preventing and reducing organized emissions

     5.7.1. Bag filters

     5.7.2. Pulse cleaning filters

     5.7.3. Ceramic and metal filters

     5.7.4. Cyclones

     5.7.5. Electrofilters

     5.7.6. Wet scrubber

     5.7.7. Dry and semi-dry scrubbers

     5.7.8. Application of methods to reduce mercury emissions

     5.7.8.1. Wet cleaning with low pH and injection of additives

     5.7.8.2. Injection of activated carbon for mercury adsorption

     5.7.8.3. Adding hydrogen peroxide to wet scrubbers

     5.8. BAT aimed at preventing and reducing emissions of pollutants

     5.8.1. Defending

     5.8.2. Chemical precipitation

     5.8.3. Adsorption using activated carbon

     5.8.4. Neutralization

     5.8.5. Oxidation

     5.8.6. Coagulation, flocculation.

     5.8.7. Ion exchange

     5.8.8. Biological purification

     5.8.9. Flotation

     5.8.10. Biofilter

     5.9. BAT aimed at managing and reducing the impact of waste on the environment

     6. A conclusion containing conclusions on the best available techniques

     6.1. General BAT

     6.1.1. Environmental management system

     6.1.2. BAT in the field of energy conservation and energy efficiency improvement

     6.1.2.1. Energy consumption and energy efficiency management

     6.1.3. Management of technological processes

     6.1.4. Monitoring of emissions

     6.1.5. Monitoring of discharges

     6.1.6. Noise, vibration, smell

     6.2. Emissions of pollutants from unorganized sources

     6.3. Emissions of pollutants from organized sources

     6.3.1. Emissions of pollutants from organized sources during mechanical and physical waste processing

     6.3.1.1. Dust and metal emissions

     6.3.1.2. Hg mercury emissions

     6.3.1.3. Sulfuric acid emissions H₂so₄

     6.3.1.4. Emissions of volatile organic compounds and hydrocarbons of the CnH2n+2 limit

     6.3.2. Emissions of pollutants from organized sources during biological waste treatment

     6.3.2.1. Dust emissions and volatile organic compounds

     6.3.2.2. Emissions of ammonia NH3 and methane CH4

     6.3.3. Emissions of pollutants from organized sources during physico-chemical waste treatment

     6.3.3.1. Dust and metal emissions

     6.3.3.2. Emissions of volatile organic compounds and hydrocarbons of the CnH2n+2 limit

     6.3.3.3. HCl hydrochloride (hydrochloric acid, hydrogen chloride) and sulfuric acid H₂so₄ emissions

     6.3.3.4. Hg mercury emissions

     6.4. Water management, wastewater disposal and treatment

     6.5. Waste management

     6.6. Remediation requirements

     7. Promising techniques

     7.1. Recovery of synthetic fluorspar from agricultural waste

     7.2. Recycling of unsorted heterogeneous plastic waste

     7.3. Innovative technologies for the production of technical industrial gases

     7.4. Processing of oil-containing waste by thermocatalytic cracking using oil-soluble catalysts

     7.5. Hydrothermal Carbonation

     7.6. Catalytic decomposition of plastic waste into fuel

     7.7. Electrochemical processing of organic waste into hydrogen

     7.8. Rotating reactors for waste treatment

     7.9. Supercritical extraction of metals from electronic waste

     8. Additional comments and recommendations

     Bibliography

Table of contents

List of diagrams/drawings

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Список таблиц

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Глоссарий

      Настоящий глоссарий предназначен для облегчения понимания информации, содержащейся в настоящем справочнике по наилучшим доступным техникам "Восстановление отходов" (далее - справочник по НДТ). Определения терминов в этом глоссарии не являются юридическими определениями (даже если некоторые из них могут совпадать с определениями, приведенными в нормативных правовых актах Республики Казахстан).

      Глоссарий представлен следующими разделами:

      термины и определения;

      сокращения и обозначения;

      химические формулы;

      единицы измерения.

Термины и определения

      В настоящем справочнике по НДТ используются следующие термины:

Аббревиатуры и их расшифровка

Химические элементы

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Химические формулы

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The preface

     A brief description of the contents of the handbook on the best available techniques: the relationship with international analogues

     The BAT Handbook has been developed in order to implement the Environmental Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

     The development of the BAT handbook was carried out in accordance with the Rules for the Development, Application, Monitoring and Revision of Reference Books on the Best Available Techniques, approved by Resolution No. 775 of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated October 28, 2021 (hereinafter - Rules).

     The list of fields of application of NDT is approved by Appendix 3 to The Environmental Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

     When developing the handbook, international experience in this field was taken into account, including the use of similar and comparable reference books officially used in the member states of the OECD, the EU, the Russian Federation, other countries and organizations, taking into account the specifics, the current structure of the economy and the need for reasonable adaptation to the climatic and environmental conditions of the Republic of Kazakhstan, determining the technical and economic availability of BAT in specific areas of their application:

     1) Directive No. 2010/75/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of the European Union on industrial emissions (on integrated pollution prevention and control);

     2) Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document for Waste Treatment/Best Available Techniques (BAT) Waste Management Reference Document;

     3) Commission Executive Decision (EU) 2018/1147 of August 10, 2018, establishing conclusions on best available practices in accordance with Directive 2010/75/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on waste management (notification according to document C (2018) 5070;

     4) Reference Document On Best Available Techniques For Energy Efficiency, EU 09/2021;

     5) ITS 15-2021 "Waste disposal and neutralization (except thermal methods)";

     6) ITS 52-2022 "Waste management of hazard classes I and II";

     7) ITS 48-2017 "Improving energy efficiency in the implementation of economic and (or) other activities";

     8) Industrial Emissions Directive 2010/75/EU Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control/Directive 2010/75/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council "On industrial emissions and/or discharges (on integrated pollution prevention and control)".

     The introduction of BAT provides for an individual approach to the selection of BAT, taking into account the economy of a particular enterprise and the readiness of the enterprise to switch to the principles of BAT, the choice of the country of the BAT manufacturer, power indicators, the size of BAT and the degree of localization of BAT.

     The modernization of production facilities using modern and efficient techniques will contribute to resource conservation and environmental improvement to appropriate levels consistent with emissions from OECD countries.

     Information about data collection

     In order to develop a handbook on BAT, information on levels of emissions, discharges, waste generation, technological processes, equipment, technical methods, and methods was collected during the CTA, the rules of which are regulated by the current legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The list of facilities for the CTA has been approved by the TRG for the development of a handbook on NDT "Waste Recovery".

     Relationship with other NDT reference books

     The BAT Handbook has a relationship with industry and intersectoral BAT manuals covering waste management processes.

Scope of application

     In accordance with the norms of the Environmental Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan (hereinafter referred to as the Environmental Code), this BAT handbook applies to the following type of activity: waste recovery.

     The BAT Handbook covers processes related to the types of activities listed in Annex 3 of the Environmental Code and is not limited to any of the activities listed in this annex, taking into account current environmental legislation regarding waste recovery.

     The scope of this intersectoral handbook on NDT has been determined by the members of the technical working group on the development of the handbook on NDT "Waste Recovery".

     This document includes a description of general approaches, methods and other relevant aspects related to waste recovery.

     The BAT Handbook does not apply to:

     radioactive waste;

     waste or technological residues from the main processes, the requirements for which are provided by industry reference books on BAT;

     disposal or recycling of animal carcasses or livestock waste;

     disposal of waste as a substitute for raw materials in installations engaged in activities covered by industry manuals on BAT (for example, direct extraction of lead from batteries; zinc or aluminum salts, metal extraction from catalysts;

     recycling paper for recycling;

     using waste as fuel/raw materials in energy recycling plants;

     waste disposal;

     energy utilization;

     waste disposal;

     processing of slags and ash dust from combustion plants provided for in the industry handbook on NDT;

     regeneration of spent acids and alkalis, in the processes provided for in industry reference books on NDT;

     auxiliary processes necessary for the uninterrupted operation of production, as well as for non-routine operating modes related to routine preventive and repair work;

     issues related to industrial safety or occupational safety.

     The scope of this handbook on NDT, as well as technological processes, equipment, technical methods and methods as NDT for the scope of this handbook on NDT are defined by the Task Force for the development of the handbook on NDT "Waste Recovery".

Principles of application

     Document status

     The BAT Handbook is intended to inform facility/facility operators, authorized government agencies and the public about BAT and any promising techniques related to the field of application of the BAT handbook in order to stimulate the transition of facility/facility operators to the principles of the "green" economy and BAT.

     The BAT Handbook contains systematic information on the state of the waste management industry in terms of waste recovery in the Republic of Kazakhstan, as well as on the most common and new, promising techniques, on resource consumption and emissions, on environmental and energy management systems.

     The definition of BAT is carried out for industries (areas of application of BAT) based on a number of internationally accepted criteria.:

     the use of advanced technologies - the level of development and effectiveness of technologies already used in industry;

     economic feasibility - the cost of implementing and operating a technology in comparison with its environmental efficiency;

     reducing the negative impact on the environment is the ability of technology to minimize emissions, discharges and waste generation;

     rational use of resources and energy efficiency - reduction of consumption of raw materials, energy and water;

     scalability and accessibility - the ability to apply technology at different scales and geographical regions;

     compliance with legislation - taking into account international and national environmental norms and standards;

     Practical experience and proven effectiveness are the confirmed results of the technology's application in enterprises.

     Mandatory provisions

     The provisions of section "6. Conclusion containing conclusions on the best available techniques" of the BAT handbook are mandatory for use in the development of conclusions on BAT.

     The need to apply one or a combination of several provisions of the BAT report is determined by facility operators independently, based on the objectives of environmental management at the enterprise, subject to compliance with technological indicators. The number and list of BATS listed in this BAT handbook are not mandatory for implementation.

     Based on the BAT report, facility operators are developing an environmental efficiency improvement program aimed at achieving the level of technological indicators approved in the BAT reports.

     Recommendation provisions

     The recommendations are descriptive in nature and are recommended for the analysis of the process of establishing technological indicators related to the use of BAT, and for the analysis during the revision of BAT reference books.:

     Section 1: provides general information on the waste recovery industry in the Republic of Kazakhstan, the structure of the industry, the industrial processes and techniques used;

     Section 2: describes the methodology of attribution to NDT, approaches to the identification of NDT;

     Section 3: the main stages of the production process are given, data and information on the environmental characteristics of installations are presented in terms of current emissions, consumption and nature of raw materials, water consumption, energy use and waste generation;

     Section 4: the methods used in the implementation of technological processes to reduce their negative impact on the environment and not requiring reconstruction of an object that has a negative impact on the environment are proposed.;

     Section 5: Describes the existing techniques that are proposed for consideration in order to determine BAT;

     Section 7: Provides information on new and promising techniques;

     Section 8: provides the final provisions and recommendations for future work in the framework of the revision of the handbook on BAT.

1. General information

This section of the BAT handbook contains general information about a specific field of application, including a description of waste recovery processes, as well as a description of the main environmental issues specific to the field of application of this BAT Handbook.

     In accordance with the Environmental Code, any substances, materials, or objects formed as a result of industrial activity, performance of work, provision of services, or consumption (including goods that have lost their consumer properties) are recognized as waste. These include objects that the owner explicitly recognizes as waste, or must be sent for disposal or restoration in accordance with the law, or intentionally exposes to disposal or restoration operations.

     The waste does not include:

     1) substances released into the atmosphere as part of exhaust gases (dust and gas-air mixture);

     2) waste water;

     3) polluted lands in their natural occurrence, including the untreated contaminated soil layer;

     4) real estate objects that are firmly connected to the land;

     5) removed uncontaminated soils;

     6) widespread solid minerals that have been extracted from their natural occurrence during excavation during construction activities and which, in accordance with the project document, are being used or will be used in their natural state for construction purposes on the territory of the same construction site where they were separated.;

     7) firearms, ammunition and explosives subject to disposal in accordance with the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of state control over the turnover of certain types of weapons.

     Waste management processes include a set of operations from the moment of formation to final disposal. Waste management operations include:

     1) accumulation of waste at the place of its formation;

     2) waste collection;

     3) waste transportation;

     4) Waste recovery;

     5) Waste disposal;

     6) auxiliary operations performed in the course of the operations provided for in paragraphs 1), 2), 4) and 5) of this paragraph;

     7) conducting observations of waste collection, transportation, recovery and (or) disposal operations;

     8) maintenance activities for liquidated (closed, decommissioned) waste disposal facilities.

     Waste recovery is any operation aimed at reducing waste volumes, the main purpose of which is to use waste to perform some useful function in order to replace other materials that would otherwise be used to perform this function, including auxiliary operations to prepare these wastes for performing such a function, carried out at a specific production facility. or in a certain sector of the economy.

     Waste recovery operations include:

     1) waste preparation for reuse;

     2) waste recycling;

     3) Waste disposal.

     Waste preparation for reuse includes health checks, cleaning and/or repairs, through which products or their components that have become waste are prepared for reuse without any other treatment.

     Waste processing refers to mechanical, physical, chemical and (or) biological processes aimed at extracting useful components, raw materials and (or) other materials from waste that are suitable for further use in the production (manufacture) of products, materials or substances, regardless of their purpose.

     Waste disposal refers to the mechanical, physico-chemical, or biological treatment of waste to reduce or eliminate its hazardous properties.

     Waste disposal refers to the process of using waste for purposes other than recycling, including as a secondary energy resource for the extraction of thermal or electrical energy, the production of various types of fuels, as well as as a secondary material resource for construction purposes, filling (laying, filling) exhausted spaces (voids) in the ground or in the subsurface, or for engineering purposes when creating or changing landscapes.

     These definitions and classifications form a unified legal and technological basis for the handbook in the field of waste recovery, establishing clear criteria for classifying materials as waste and eliminating duplication of regulation for facilities that do not fall under this concept. The systematization of waste management processes, including accumulation, collection, transportation, recovery and disposal, allows for the development of effective technological regulations, paying special attention to recovery and disposal methods. The focus on restoration is consistent with the principles of a cyclical economy, laid down in the Environmental Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, and contributes to the maximum involvement of secondary resources in economic turnover. Excluding objects such as atmospheric emissions, wastewater, and real estate from the waste category helps optimize the regulatory framework and focus on managing exactly those materials that require recycling or safe disposal. These provisions should be applied in the development of technological solutions, industry standards and regulations, ensuring environmentally safe and cost-effective waste management in accordance with modern requirements of sustainable development.

     Waste recovery is carried out in accordance with the requirements:

     current rules for the development of a waste management program;

     the current waste classifier;

     current lists of waste not subject to energy disposal;

     list of national standards in the field of waste management.

     The aspects of waste management in this BAT handbook are considered only in relation to processes:

     waste treatment for reuse, including health checks, cleaning and/or repairs, through which products or their components that have become waste are prepared for reuse without any other treatment.

     waste recycling, which involves mechanical, physical, chemical and (or) biological processes aimed at extracting useful components, raw materials and (or) other materials suitable for further use in the production (manufacture) of products, materials or substances, regardless of their purpose, except for the cases provided for in this handbook..

     waste disposal, which covers the use of waste for purposes other than recycling, as a secondary material resource for construction, filling (laying, filling) depleted spaces (voids) in the ground or subsurface, or for engineering purposes when creating or changing landscapes.;

     as well as auxiliary waste treatment operations for performing this function, carried out at a specific production facility or in a specific sector of the economy.

1.1. Overview of the waste recovery industry

     International experience

     Industrial waste is a by-product of industrial activities, including metallurgical, chemical, construction, food and other sectors. These wastes can be both hazardous and non-hazardous and vary significantly in physical and chemical characteristics.

     According to Statista estimates, more than 2.3 billion tons of industrial waste are generated annually in the world. However, globally aggregated statistics covering exclusively industrial waste (outside MSW and agriculture) are limited. In the United States, according to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the volume of industrial waste is about 7.6 billion tons per year, including waste from mining and processing industries. In the European Union, the total volume of waste in 2022 was 1,992 million. tons, of which 48.8% accounted for the mining industry and 10.2% for the manufacturing industry (according to Eurostat).

     The most problematic regions include China and India, where there is intense industrial growth in the absence of a well-developed waste management infrastructure, as well as countries in Latin America and Southeast Asia, where a high proportion of waste is disposed of without authorization. The United States also maintains high waste generation and exports of some hazardous flows to neighboring countries.

     According to the regional distribution of industrial waste generation, Asia accounts for 43.3%, Europe - 25.7%, North America - 17.4% and the rest of the regions - 13.6%.

     The global industrial waste recycling and recovery market was estimated at $30 billion in 2024 and, according to forecasts by The Business Research Company, could reach $78 billion by 2034 with an average annual growth rate of about 6%. The main recycling areas include metals (38.5%), non-hazardous industrial waste (68.4%) and hazardous waste, including electronic and chemical waste (31.6%).

     In the European Union, the level of waste recycling and recovery in 2022 reached 61.4%, including recycling (40.8%), backfilling (14.2%) and energy utilization (6.4%). In Japan, the level of waste involvement in reuse and energy disposal is about 70%. There are more than 300 material recovery Centers (MRFs) in the United States, and the total annual turnover in this area exceeds $6.6 billion.

According to the Global Waste Management Outlook report, more than 2 billion tons of municipal solid waste (MSW) are generated annually in the world. Forecasts show that in the absence of effective waste management measures, their volume could reach 3.8 billion tons by 2050. Population growth, urbanization, and increased consumption are the main reasons for the increase in MSW volumes. High-income countries, accounting for 16% of the world's population, produce approximately 34% of the world's waste (683 million tons according to 2016 data). At the same time, in developed countries, the level of waste disposal has been reduced to 39% due to recycling (35%) and incineration (22%), while in countries with above-average incomes this figure reaches 54%.

     Globally, only 19% of MSW is recycled, including metals, glass, paper and cardboard. The recycling rate varies significantly between countries: in developed countries it exceeds 50%, while in Africa and South America it does not exceed 5%. In 2020, the direct global cost of waste management amounted to 252 billion US dollars. However, taking into account the hidden costs associated with pollution and climate change, the amount increases to 361 billion dollars. Without urgent reforms and modernization of waste management systems, annual costs could reach 640.3 billion by 2050. US dollars. The main cost growth factor is the increase in waste and unsustainable consumption patterns.

     Kazakhstan practice

     The creation of an effective waste management system is one of the key areas of the Concept for the transition to a "green economy". The dynamics of waste generation and recycling is an important indicator of the effectiveness of this system.

     The main sources of industrial waste generation and accumulation in the Republic of Kazakhstan are tailings dumps, sludge accumulators, ash dumps, overburden dumps, as well as other facilities for mining, metallurgical, oil and gas, and thermal power plants containing useful components and (or) minerals. The industrial value of waste is determined by its material composition and shelf life.

     The country has accumulated about 31.6 billion tons of industrial waste. About 1 billion tons are generated annually, including overburden and ash and slag (70% of the total), waste from the manufacturing industry (10% of the total) and other activities (20%).

     In the mining industry, waste and overburden rocks are mainly formed, however, a significant part of them may also consist of tailings formed as a result of crushing and processing ores containing heavy metals, reagents from processing processes, thickeners, etc., depending on the type of ore and its processing technologies.

     Overburden - mining waste, mining waste. A large amount of waste rock rises to the surface of the earth, is crushed and sent to landfills in the form of overburden. Mining and processing plants dump large amounts of flotation tailings, which are formed, in particular, during the processing of non-ferrous metal ores. Waste from coal mining and coal enrichment is generated at coal-processing plants. The extracted rocks and waste from the industrial processing of ore minerals differ in genesis, mineral composition, structure and texture.

     The enrichment waste of the current output retains its primary physical and mechanical properties and chemical composition. They can go through additional stages of combined enrichment, bypassing all other stages (warehousing and others).

     The mining industry accounts for the majority (about 70%) of industrial waste. Waste from the extraction of solid minerals is formed as a result of the separation of solid minerals from the rock mass during their extraction from the subsurface. These include overburden, host rock, dust, poor (substandard) ore, processing waste generated as a result of mining and processing industries (tailings and processing sludge) and (or) chemical and metallurgical industries (slags, cakes, clinkers and other similar types of waste from metallurgical conversion. The oil and gas industry of the Republic of Kazakhstan includes waste generation during the extraction, processing and transportation of hydrocarbons. The main wastes during the extraction of hydrocarbons are drilling waste - drilling mud and solutions, during oil refining - oil sludge (mixtures of water, oil and sediments), sulfur-containing waste, oils containing acids, bitumen, during gas transportation - waste containing mercury, sulfur, formed during gas purification. One of the urgent environmental problems is soil pollution with heavy metals and petroleum products. Soil contamination with oil and petroleum products causes an almost complete depression of the functional activity of the soil microflora. The physico-chemical properties of the soil are changing, the water-air regime is deteriorating, and the structure of biocenoses is changing.

     According to government statistics, over the past 4 years, the annual volume of solid household waste collected has remained at the level of 4 - 4.7 million tons. In 2023, the volume of solid household waste generated amounted to 4.4 million tons, showing a slight decrease compared to 2020. Of the total volume, 75.7% is municipal waste, which is collected by specialized enterprises and organizations.

     The volume of waste generated per capita in 2023, according to statistics, amounted to 221.8 kg per person (or 0.61 kg per day), which is generally below the global average. The World Bank estimates that the average amount of waste generated per person in the world is 0.74 kg per day. Despite this, the recycling and disposal of solid household waste remains at a low level. In 2023, only 1,029.6 thousand tons (24.3% of the total volume) were allocated for processing and reuse, while the main share was 2,899.9 thousand. tons were sent for burial, which does not solve the problem of their disposal, accumulating existing volumes.

     One of the factors contributing to the low level of recycling is the insufficient development of the separate garbage collection infrastructure. Waste sorting culture is in its infancy, which complicates recycling processes. Considering the structure of waste, it is noticeable that about 63% of the generated solid household waste consists of mixed waste that cannot be sorted and recycled.

     Waste recovery activities are regulated by the system of regulatory legal acts and national standards of the Republic of Kazakhstan included in the order of the authorized body in the field of environmental protection.

     Waste recovery occupies 3 positions in the decision-making hierarchy (waste preparation for reuse, waste recycling, waste disposal) in the chain of waste management methods.

     When choosing a waste management method, waste owners are guided by the principles of hierarchy.

     This principle determines the priority of the waste management method used in terms of rational use of resources, reduction of emissions, and the ability to apply the principles of circular economy.

     Figure 1.1. Hierarchy of waste management measures.

     In Kazakhstan, waste recovery is not the most frequent method of waste management. This conclusion is based on the statistical data presented below.

     In Kazakhstan, most of the generated waste is industrial waste.

     Table 1.1. Industrial waste generation and recycling rate

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      Источник: Министерство экологии и природных ресурсов Республики Казахстан.

      Таблица 1.2. Образование твердых бытовых отходов и уровень их переработки

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      Таблица 1.3. Образование ТБО и уровень их переработки в разрезе регионов

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      Таблица 1.4. Образование коммунальных отходов

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      Таблица 1.5. Образование коммунальных отходов в разрезе регионов

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      Таблица 1.6. Образование опасных отходов и уровень их переработки

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      Таблица 1.7. Образование опасных отходов и уровень их переработки в разрезе регионов

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      * Без учета инсинерации.

      Таблица 1.8. Образование, использование и обезвреживание опасных отходов производства

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      Таблица 1.9. Образование опасных отходов по видам экономической деятельности

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1.2. Types of waste and their formation

     Waste classification is a fundamental tool of environmental regulation that ensures safe and effective waste management.

     The types of waste, as well as their hazard and non-hazard, are determined based on the current waste classifier. In turn, classifiers determine the hazard of waste, taking into account the origin and composition of each type of waste, and, if necessary, limit values for the concentration of hazardous substances are determined in order to classify them as hazardous or non-hazardous. The hazard class of waste is a numerical characteristic of waste that determines the type and degree of its danger in terms of toxic effects on human health and the environment. It is determined in accordance with current sanitary, epidemiological and environmental legislation, as well as national standards of the Republic of Kazakhstan included in the order of the authorized body in the field of environmental protection.

     According to the Environmental Code, classification is based on the principles of origin, composition and degree of danger of waste.

     The list of waste types is regulated by the scope of the BAT handbook in accordance with the current environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan and is based on the National Waste Classifier. This section provides a generalized list of waste categories by origin in order to provide a general understanding of the structure and types of waste generated. It should be borne in mind that certain types of waste are considered in more detail or will be considered in the framework of relevant industry reference books, taking into account the specifics of production processes and technologies used.

1.2.1. Medical and biological waste

     Medical and biological waste is a special category of waste generated as a result of the activities of institutions and organizations related to the protection of human and animal health, sanitary and epidemiological measures, as well as scientific and educational research in the field of medicine and biology.

     Such wastes include:

     materials and objects that have come into contact with human or animal biological fluids, including disposable syringes, needles, gloves, dressings, surgical instruments, etc.;

     biological remains such as tissue fragments, organs, placenta, blood, dissecting materials, as well as corpses of laboratory animals and organs used for scientific or educational purposes;

     medicinal waste, including expired or unused medicines, cytotoxic drugs, ampoules, vials, solutions;

     chemically hazardous waste generated by the use of disinfectants, reagents, laboratory chemicals and other toxic substances;

     infectious and hazardous waste containing pathogenic microorganisms potentially capable of causing diseases in contact with humans or animals;

     veterinary waste generated in medical institutions for animals, including biological materials, vaccines, drugs, etc.

     Medical waste, depending on the degree of its epidemiological, toxicological and radiation hazards, as well as negative effects on the environment, is divided into five hazard classes:

     1) Class A - non-hazardous waste;

     2) Class B - epidemiologically hazardous and extremely hazardous waste;

     3) class B - waste similar in composition to industrial waste;

     4) Class G - toxicologically dangerous in composition, close to industrial;

     5) Class D - radioactive.

     In 1979, the World Health Organization classified medical waste as hazardous and pointed out the need to create specialized recycling services. The Basel Convention of 1992 (Annex I "Categories of substances to be regulated") identified the following waste groups:

     Y1 - medical waste obtained as a result of medical care of patients in hospitals, polyclinics and clinics;

     Y2 - waste from the production and processing of pharmaceutical products;

     Y3 - unnecessary pharmaceutical products, medicines and preparations;

     Y4 is waste from the production, production and use of biocides and phytopharmaceuticals.

     The BAT handbook discusses the recovery of medical waste of classes B and C, that is, classified as group Y1 under the Basel Convention.

     There is a tendency towards an intensive increase in the formation of medical waste.

     Over the past 10 to 15 years, the amount of medical waste has been increasing by 3% to 4% annually. Medical waste is epidemiologically dangerous, as it contains pathogenic bacteria and viruses in addition to toxic chemicals. The medical waste management system is aimed at preventing the spread of infectious origin and ensuring their treatment with a complete loss of marketable properties.

     Waste recovery consists in the destruction (killing) of pathogenic and conditionally pathogenic microorganisms contained in waste in order to eliminate their epidemiological danger. Waste recovery is carried out by appropriate physical and/or chemical waste treatment methods (including the hardware method at specialized installations). Basic data on medical waste recovery methods and technologies.

     Biological waste includes: corpses of animals and birds, including laboratory ones; aborted and stillborn fetuses; veterinary seizures (meat, fish, and other products of animal origin) identified after veterinary and sanitary examination at slaughterhouses, cold storage facilities, meat and fish processing organizations, markets, trade organizations, and other facilities; other waste obtained during the processing of food and non-food raw materials of animal origin.

     When disposing of biological waste generated as a result of the death of animals in organizations, these wastes are sorted and crushed, and processed into meat and bone, bone, meat, feather flour and other protein feed additives.

     The recovery of biological waste is aimed at obtaining marketable products as a result of waste processing. Biological waste approved by the veterinary service for processing for feed purposes is being restored. The recovery process is carried out by recycling at veterinary and sanitary recycling plants (workshops) in accordance with the requirements of current sanitary, epidemiological and environmental legislation, as well as national standards of the Republic of Kazakhstan included in the order of the authorized body in the field of environmental protection.

1.2.2. Hazardous waste

     The principle of classification of hazardous waste is based on the identification of hazardous properties that pose a threat to the environment, human life and health. According to the established criteria, waste is considered dangerous if it has one or more of 16 specific properties (HP1 - HP16), including explosion hazard (HP1), oxidizing properties (HP2), flammability (HP3), various types of toxicity (HP5 - HP7, HP10 - HP11), corrosion activity (HP8), infectious properties (HP9), the ability to emit toxic gases (HP12), sensitizing effect (HP13), ecotoxicity (HP14), as well as the ability to exhibit dangerous properties indirectly (HP15). A special category consists of persistent organic pollutants (POPS, HP16), characterized by high environmental resistance and bioaccumulative potential.

     The method of determining hazardous properties involves a comprehensive assessment of the physico-chemical characteristics of waste, its composition and potential impact on the environment and human health. Waste that does not exhibit any of the listed hazardous properties and does not pose a threat either on its own or when interacting with other substances is classified as non-hazardous.

     Features of waste grouping in this handbook.

     Within the framework of this document, mercury-containing wastes are considered exclusively under the category of hazardous waste, due to their high toxicity and prevalence in various industries. At the same time, persistent organic pollutants (pops) are not included in the grouping under consideration, as they require special methods of analysis and disposal that go beyond the scope of this handbook. This approach allows us to focus on the most relevant aspects of hazardous waste management, while ensuring a sufficient level of environmental safety.

     Mercury-containing equipment waste includes:

     mercury-containing products that have failed (mercury thermometers, mercury lamps, mercury and mercury-containing galvanic cells, and other devices);

     out-of-order measuring devices (barometers, hygrometers, pressure gauges, thermometers, sphygmomanometers) containing mercury and mounted on bulky equipment;

     mercury-containing materials and products used in medicine, agriculture, and the paint and varnish industry.

     The main part of these wastes is represented by waste from mercury-containing lamps of various modifications.

     Basic data on methods and technologies for the disposal and neutralization of mercury-containing equipment waste. Technologies for the disposal and neutralization of mercury-containing equipment include demercurization, the use of methods of leaching, oxidation, extraction and production of metallic mercury.

1.2.3. Oil-containing waste

Oil-containing waste is a special category of industrial waste generated during the extraction, transportation, processing and storage of oil and petroleum products. These include drilling mud, spent oil sludge, oil-contaminated waters and soils, oil residues in reservoirs, as well as oiled rags, filters and packaging. These wastes are characterized by a high degree of toxicity, fire and explosion hazards, as well as resistance to natural decomposition. In this regard, oil-containing waste management requires the use of specialized recovery technologies, including centrifugation, heat treatment, bioremediation, as well as mandatory licensing of all stages - from collection to final processing or disposal.

1.2.4. Organic waste

     Organic waste is waste containing mainly biodegradable components of plant, animal or food origin. This category includes food waste, manure and manure, agricultural waste, plant trimmings, organic fraction of solid household waste, as well as sewage sludge with a high organic content. Due to their tendency to rapid biodegradation, such wastes pose a potential danger in the form of the formation of an unpleasant odor, pathogenic microflora and greenhouse gas emissions, in particular methane. Effective management of organic waste requires the use of specialized technologies such as composting, anaerobic digestion (biogas plants), drying, thermal decontamination and preparation for secondary use (for example, as a fertilizer or energy source). In the Republic of Kazakhstan, the management of organic waste is regulated within the framework of the Environmental Code, with an emphasis on minimizing its disposal, the transition to resource-saving technologies and involvement in a cyclical economy.

1.2.5. Waste of electrical and electronic equipment

     Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) includes decommissioned appliances, devices, and components powered by electricity or electromagnetic fields. This category includes household appliances, computers, telephones, televisions, lighting fixtures, cables, circuit boards, and batteries. These wastes contain a wide range of dangerous components - heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium), bromine-containing flame retardants, plastics, as well as valuable secondary resources - copper, gold, rare earth metals. Improper management of WEEE poses risks of contamination of soil, air and water bodies, as well as a threat to public health. Effective management of such waste requires the introduction of a system for separate collection, dismantling, neutralization of hazardous components and recycling with the extraction of useful fractions. In the Republic of Kazakhstan, regulation in the field of WEEE is carried out in accordance with the Environmental Code, with the prospect of introducing extended producer responsibility (EPR) mechanisms and developing infrastructure for the restoration of electronic equipment.

1.2.6. Solid industrial waste

     Solid industrial waste is residual materials formed during the operation of industrial enterprises in various industries (chemical, machine-building, textile, leather, pulp and paper, food and others) that are not subject to further use in the main production cycle. These include industrial dust, process residues of raw materials, oiled rags, filter materials, packaging, used chemicals and other solid fractions. Such waste may contain dangerous substances such as organic solvents, petroleum products, heavy metals, and other components that, if handled improperly, may pose a threat to the environment and public health. The management of these wastes requires mandatory classification by hazard class, compliance with the rules of temporary storage, transportation, disposal or neutralization using the best available techniques in accordance with the requirements of the Environmental Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, solid industrial waste management is subject to strict state regulation, including record keeping, certification and control of accumulation facilities.

1.2.7. Liquid waste

     Liquid waste is a heterogeneous category of waste that combines all forms of liquid, semi-liquid, and emulsified materials produced as a result of industrial activities, utilities, transportation operations, and natural processes. These include: industrial effluents (acid/alkaline solutions, galvanic electrolytes, oil-containing emulsions), household liquid waste (sewage, food liquids), agricultural waste (liquid fertilizers, pesticide solutions), transport fluids (used brake, hydraulic and cooling fluids, including antifreeze), as well as precipitation, polluted by man-made emissions. A special feature of liquid waste is its high mobility in the environment, its ability to penetrate into groundwater and form stable toxic compounds when mixed with other substances.

     Transport fluids, such as used brake and hydraulic compounds, pose a special environmental hazard due to the content of glycolic esters, heavy metals and other toxic components. According to the degree of danger, liquid waste ranges from conditionally safe (for example, storm drains) to extremely dangerous (some types of used transport fluids).

     Liquid waste management requires specialized approaches that take into account its physico-chemical properties (viscosity, density, corrosion activity, flash point) and potential impact on ecosystems. Special attention should be paid to the collection, storage and processing of transport fluids, which often contain persistent organic pollutants. All this makes the processing and disposal of liquid waste a critically important link in the environmental safety system, requiring the use of modern technologies and strict compliance with regulatory requirements.

1.2.8. Other waste

     The "Other waste" category combines residual and difficult-to-process materials that cannot be effectively restored or re-involved in the production cycle using modern technologies. As a rule, these are wastes generated as a result of complex, multi-stage or combined technological processes, including those with a high level of physico-chemical instability, danger or contamination. This group includes, for example, mixtures of heterogeneous substances without a clearly defined component composition, contaminated inert materials, persistent organic pollutants, old composites, contaminated loose building residues, depleted and unusable filter media, thermally degraded plastics, etc.

     Waste from this group, as a rule, does not have economically justified and technologically feasible solutions for their processing or recycling, due to a number of factors: lack of methods for selective separation of components, high toxicity, unstable composition, or impracticability of energy or material disposal. Given these circumstances, other waste must be disposed of using specialized disposal methods, including high-temperature treatment, stabilization, encapsulation, chemical neutralization, or burial in licensed landfills with controlled barrier and engineering equipment.

     Thus, "Other waste" is a residual class in which waste accumulates that cannot be recovered, and requires a responsible approach to their safe and final disposal, in strict accordance with the requirements of environmental legislation and sanitary safety.

1.2.9. Mining and metallurgical waste

     Mining and metallurgical waste is a specific category of industrial waste generated at all stages of the technological cycle, from the extraction of raw materials to the production of finished metal products. These include overburden and host rocks (up to 85% of the total volume of industrial waste), ore dressing tailings, slags and sludge from metallurgical production, dust from gas purification plants, spent refractories and other technological waste. A special feature of individual wastes is their significant volume of formation (hundreds of millions of tons annually), the high inertia of most components, as well as the presence of valuable (ferrous and non-ferrous metals, rare earths) and hazardous substances (heavy metals, arsenic, fluorine). According to the degree of exposure, they range from non-hazardous (overburden and host rocks) to extremely dangerous (electroplating sludge, arsenic-containing waste). Mining and metallurgical waste management requires a differentiated approach that takes into account their mineral and chemical composition, physical and mechanical properties and potential resource value, which determines the need for a combination of safe storage methods, reclamation of disturbed lands and deep processing with the extraction of useful components.

1.2.10. Plastic and rubber products

Plastic and rubber products that have lost their consumer properties represent a special category of waste characterized by high resistance to natural decomposition and significant resource potential. This group includes: polymer waste (PET containers, polyethylene packaging, polypropylene products), rubber products (automobile tires, conveyor belts, rubber mixtures), as well as composite materials combining polymer and other components. The peculiarity of these wastes is their long decay period (up to 100-150 years for some types of plastics), the ability to fragment to form microplastics, as well as the high energy intensity of primary production, which makes their processing environmentally and economically feasible. According to the degree of danger, they range from relatively safe (pure polyolefins) to toxic (PVC with plasticizers, rubbers with heavy metals). The management of polymer and rubber waste flows requires specialized approaches that take into account their chemical composition (type of polymer, presence of additives and dyes), physical properties (density, melting point) and technological parameters of processing, which determines the need to develop a separate collection system, introduce modern methods of mechanical and chemical processing, as well as create a market for recycled polymer materials..

1.2.11. Municipal waste

     Municipal waste is a heterogeneous mixture of waste generated as a result of the vital activity of the population and the work of institutions. These include: food waste (30-45% of the composition), paper and cardboard (15-25%), polymer materials (10-15%), glass (5-8%), textiles (3-5%), as well as other components (metals, hazardous waste, others fractions). A special feature of municipal waste is its constant growth in volumes (5-7 million tons). tons annually in Kazakhstan), seasonal fluctuations in composition and morphological characteristics, as well as a high degree of contamination with organic components. According to the degree of danger, they range from practically inert (pure waste paper) to extremely dangerous (mercury lamps, batteries). Municipal waste management requires an integrated approach, including the organization of a separate collection system, the introduction of modern sorting and recycling methods, as well as the development of infrastructure for safe recovery, which is an essential condition for the transition to a cyclical economy and reducing the environmental burden on the environment.

1.2.12. Industrial and construction waste

     Industrial and construction waste is a large-tonnage category of waste generated during production activities and construction and dismantling works. A special place in this group is occupied by construction waste, which includes: concrete and reinforced concrete structures (35-50% of the total volume), brickwork (15-20%), asphalt concrete materials (10-15%), wood waste (5-10%), as well as metal, glass and polymer components. A characteristic feature of construction waste is its relative chemical inertia, large-sized fractions and high potential suitability for recycling (up to 80-90% of the volume can be recycled). However, their processing is complicated by the heterogeneity of the composition, the presence of impurities (paints, adhesives, impregnations) and the need to use special crushing and screening equipment. The management of these wastes requires the development of specialized regulations that take into account their physical and mechanical properties, the degree of pollution and the possibility of recycling, which is an important condition for reducing the burden on landfills and the transition to a resource-efficient economic model.

1.3. The main environmental problems

     The increasing volume of waste caused by population growth and industrial production requires a transition from traditional burial to a recovery system in which waste is considered as a valuable raw material resource for reuse and recycling.

     The main sources of waste - the household sector, industry (including mining enterprises that generate significant amounts of mineral waste), construction and agriculture - have significant resource potential. Organic waste can be processed into compost and biogas, polymers and metals can be recycled multiple times, building materials can be reused, and mineral waste, including enrichment tailings, can be used in road construction or serve as a source of residual useful components extracted by modern technologies.

     Waste has a complex negative impact on the environment. Physical pollution manifests itself in the cluttering of territories, the formation of unauthorized landfills and the accumulation of large-scale tailings ponds containing millions of tons of mineral waste from the mining and metallurgical complex. In addition, the chemical effects of toxic substances on soil, water bodies and the atmosphere, as well as the biological risks associated with the spread of pathogenic microorganisms, are added. Tailings ponds, which contain crushed rocks, reagent residues and heavy metals, are particularly dangerous, which requires the use of specialized methods of reclamation and processing.

     To realize the resource potential of waste, an integrated system is needed, including separate collection, mechanical processing, biological methods and advanced technologies. This will significantly reduce the volume of landfills, return valuable materials to economic circulation and reduce the environmental burden, including from tailings dumps occupying vast territories.

     The transition to a closed-cycle economy, especially in terms of mineral waste processing, requires improving the regulatory framework, introducing expanded producer responsibility, developing specialized recycling infrastructure (including technologies for extracting metals from tailings), stimulating investment and environmental education. The implementation of these measures will transform the problem of waste, including mineral waste, into an opportunity for sustainable resource conservation.

     Special attention should be paid to solving the problem of tailings through the introduction of technologies for their conservation, reclamation and reuse, which will reduce their negative impact on the environment.

1.3.1. Waste management generated after recovery processes and not subject to further recovery

     Even after the application of modern waste recovery technologies (mechanical, physical processing, biological methods, physico-chemical processing), some of the materials remain unsuitable for further use. Such waste includes residues after separation, ash dust, filter sediments, stabilized toxic substances, heavily contaminated mixtures, as well as waste products that have lost their resource potential.

     Due to the wide variety of waste types, the final residues can also vary significantly. It all depends on the raw materials and the applied technological processes.

     The management of this category of waste requires the use of special methods aimed at minimizing its environmental hazard and safe isolation.

     The ecological importance of this area is to prevent secondary pollution of soil, water and atmosphere, as well as to reduce the risk to public health. According to the international waste management hierarchy, such measures are applied only in cases where all possibilities of reuse, recycling or recovery have been exhausted.

     Thus, the management of waste generated after recovery processes and not subject to further processing is the final link of an integrated waste management system and requires strict compliance with environmental and sanitary standards.

1.3.2. Emissions of pollutants into the atmospheric air

     Waste recycling processes, despite their importance for a closed-loop economy, can be accompanied by the release of various pollutants into the environment. The nature of these emissions significantly depends on the type of waste being recycled, the materials and the technological processes used.

     The following types of pollution are observed during mechanical processing of the main types of waste:

     solid particles and dust;

     volatile organic compounds;

     aerosols of heavy metals.

     Physico-chemical processing methods can lead to the release of:

     vapors of organic solvents;

     volatile compounds of heavy metals;

     ammonia and other gaseous reaction products.

     Biological methods of waste processing are accompanied by education:

     of methane;

     hydrogen sulfide and ammonia;

     biological aerosols.

     To minimize the environmental impact of modern waste recovery enterprises, they use:

     1) aspiration and gas purification systems;

     2) sealing of technological equipment;

     3) Continuous monitoring of emissions;

     4) the use of closed technological cycles.

     Effective management of waste emissions allows not only to reduce the environmental burden, but also to increase the economic efficiency of processing enterprises through the recovery of valuable components and compliance with environmental regulations.

1.3.3. Discharges of pollutants into water bodies

     Waste recycling, being an important element of sustainable development, carries a potential threat to aquatic ecosystems. The main problem is the possible ingress of pollutants into surface and groundwater through industrial effluents, filtration waters and storm drains.

Waste recycling, being an important element of sustainable development, carries a potential threat to aquatic ecosystems. The main problem is the possible ingress of pollutants into surface and groundwater through industrial effluents, filtration waters and storm drains.

     The main risks are associated with insufficient wastewater treatment, imperfect technological processes and the absence of closed water use systems at processing plants. Liquid waste generated during the processing of various types of raw materials, which may contain a wide range of harmful components, is particularly dangerous.

     The lack of proper control over water discharges leads to a deterioration in the quality of water resources, a violation of the ecological balance and poses a threat to the health of the population using water for household and drinking needs. Solving this problem requires an integrated approach, including the modernization of wastewater treatment plants, the introduction of resource-saving technologies and enhanced environmental monitoring.

     Effective management of water discharges during waste treatment should become an integral part of environmental policy aimed at preserving water resources for future generations.

1.3.4. Impact on land resources

     Waste generation poses a serious threat to the state of soil resources, causing their progressive degradation. The main problem lies in the complex negative effects that manifest themselves through physical, chemical and biological changes in soil properties.

     Modern waste management systems often have an impact on the soil cover. This results in mechanical damage to the soil structure, contamination with toxic substances, and disruption of natural biochemical processes. The accumulation of harmful compounds that can persist in the soil for decades and gradually migrate to neighboring ecosystems is particularly dangerous.

     The consequences of such an impact are long-term and manifest themselves in a decrease in land fertility, loss of their economic value and disruption of ecological functions. This problem is particularly acute in areas with intensive industrial activity and a high concentration of waste disposal facilities.

     Solving this problem requires a fundamentally new approach to waste management system organization. It is necessary to develop and implement technologies that minimize land-intensive disposal methods, as well as create an effective soil monitoring system. Special attention should be paid to the restoration of already disturbed lands through comprehensive reclamation programs.

     Effective management of soil resources in the context of waste management should become an essential element of environmental policy. This will not only preserve the most valuable natural resource, but also ensure the sustainable development of the territories in the long term.

1.4. Energy consumption

     Waste recovery is a key element of a modern waste management strategy aimed at reducing the burden on landfills, reducing the consumption of primary resources and reducing the negative impact on the environment.

     Energy consumption in the waste recovery process depends on many factors, including the type of waste, the technologies used, the efficiency of the equipment, and the scale of production. Optimization of these factors allows not only to reduce energy costs, but also to minimize the impact on the environment, which corresponds to the principles of sustainable development and the requirements of the BAT. The key factors affecting energy consumption are described below.

     Different types of waste require different amounts of energy to process them. This is due to their physical and chemical properties, as well as the technologies used to restore them. Recycling of scrap metal (for example, aluminum, steel) requires significant energy consumption for melting, but metals can be recycled repeatedly without loss of quality. Plastic recycling includes crushing, washing, drying and granulation processes. Energy consumption depends on the type of plastic (PET, PVC, polyethylene). Glass processing requires energy for crushing, cleaning and melting, while processing organic waste (for example, composting or anaerobic digestion) is less energy-intensive, but requires energy for drying, grinding and maintaining temperature conditions.

     The technological processes used have a great impact on energy consumption. Waste recovery processes are energy-intensive, due to the need to perform operations such as crushing, sorting, cleaning, drying, melting and chemical treatment, etc.

     The main volume of electric energy consumption is accounted for by the drive of crushing and crushing, sorting and processing plants. Electric energy is also used in the processes of electrolysis, magnetic separation and automated process control systems. The share of electric energy consumption from the total energy consumption of the waste recovery and recycling process is 40-60%. Energy-efficient technologies and equipment upgrades can reduce this figure.

     Thermal energy in the recovery and processing of waste is used in the processes of drying waste before processing, in heat treatment without incineration, in heating rooms and technical units. Part of the thermal energy can be obtained through heat recovery during waste disposal. In some cases, thermal energy is necessary to maintain optimal temperature conditions in chemical processing processes. Thermal energy accounts for 30-50% of total energy consumption.

     The fuel is used for waste transportation, the operation of special equipment (bulldozers, loaders) and the generation of thermal energy. The main part of freight transport and special equipment runs on diesel fuel, which can also be used in generators to generate electricity. Natural gas is used as a gas engine fuel and in autonomous boilers to generate heat. In some cases, waste can serve as a fuel source, for example, in the production of biogas from organic waste fractions. In general, fuel accounts for 10-20% of energy consumption during waste recovery.

     Various equipment is used in waste recovery and recycling, and some installations consume especially much energy. This is due to the fact that waste recycling includes mechanical, thermal and chemical processing, the technology of which requires significant energy expenditure. A detailed description of the most energy-intensive installations is provided below.

     Crushing and crushing plants are designed for primary waste treatment - crushing, crushing and preparation for further processing. They are used for scrap metal, plastic, glass, wood and construction waste. The engines of these devices consume a large amount of electricity.

     Melting furnaces are the largest energy consumers in the recovery and recycling of waste. Unlike incineration, melting does not destroy the material, but turns it into a liquid state in order to reuse it. Such methods are used for processing metals (for example, processing steel, copper) and glass. Melting of these materials requires a very high temperature (up to 1600°C), so the furnaces consume a large amount of heat and electrical energy.

     Modern waste recycling plants use waste sorting lines with optical or magnetic separators. Optical sensors, magnetic and eddy current separators operate at high speed, allowing the separation of different materials. Such installations consume a lot of electricity, especially if they include mounted compressors and robotic mechanisms.

     Most of the modern waste processing plants use drying units. Many waste products require pre-drying before processing, as excessive moisture prevents their further processing. For example, plastic must be dry before turning into granules, otherwise the quality of the final product will deteriorate. Organic waste, such as food residues or sawdust, is dried before biological processing (for example, before fermentation or pyrolysis) in order to improve the decomposition process and increase the calorific value during prolonged use as fuel. Depending on the technology, electric energy (for example, in drying drums) or thermal energy (for example, when using waste heat from other production processes) can be used for drying.

     There is no official statistical information on energy consumption in the field of waste recovery in Kazakhstan, however, an analysis of energy consumption by 31 organizations was carried out within the framework of the data from the State Energy Register. Their total energy consumption amounted to 13,773 tons of conventional fuel in 2024. In order to reflect the level of consumption of energy resources, based on data from the State Energy Register and conducted CTAs, the average share of energy consumption is derived, which is presented below.

     Figure 1.2. The share of energy consumption in the recovery and recycling of waste, %.

     The calculation method is based on an analysis of the energy consumption of various technological processes included in the structure of production costs of these enterprises. Within the framework of the CTA, the main energy-intensive installations were identified and their average share in total energy consumption was calculated.

The calculation method is based on an analysis of the energy consumption of various technological processes included in the structure of production costs of these enterprises. Within the framework of the CTA, the main energy-intensive installations were identified and their average share in total energy consumption was calculated.

     To calculate the share of consumption of melting furnaces, data on the consumption of electricity and heat while maintaining high temperature conditions for processing metals and other materials were taken into account. The calculation of crushing and crushing plants is based on the power of electric motors of crushers, grinders and turbines, as well as on the actual indicators of their electricity consumption. The share of consumption of sorting lines with separators is determined by the actual energy consumption of conveyors, magnetic, eddy current and other separators distributed in enterprises. For drying plants, the calculation is based on an analysis of the energy consumption of equipment used to remove moisture from various types of waste. The main part of the energy consumption of drying plants is caused by thermal processes associated with heating the air and surface material to accelerate the evaporation of moisture. The greatest energy consumption is determined when removing moisture from wastewater impurities, biomass and some types of plastics with a high moisture content.

     Given the huge volumes of waste, Kazakhstan has great potential for the development of waste recovery and recycling technology. In this context, an important way to reduce energy consumption is a comprehensive analysis of energy consumption at each stage of the technological chain and conducting an energy audit to identify and eliminate inefficient areas.

2. Methodology for determining the best available techniques

     The procedure for determining the BAT for the scope of this BAT handbook is organized by the NAO "International Center for Green Technologies and Investment Projects" represented by the BAT Bureau (hereinafter referred to as the Center) and the TRG for the development of the BAT handbook "Waste Recovery" in accordance with the provisions of the Rules.

     This procedure takes into account international practices and approaches to the definition of BAT, including those based on EU reference documents on BAT, such as the "Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document for Waste Treatment", as well as the Information and Technical Handbook on the Best Available Technologies (ITS) 15-2021 "Waste disposal and neutralization (except thermal methods)" and ITS 52-2022 "Waste management of hazard classes I and II" of the Russian Federation.

2.1. Determination, principles of BAT selection

     The definition of BAT is based on principles and criteria in accordance with the requirements of the Environmental Code, as well as on compliance with the sequence of actions of the TRG.:

     1) identification of key environmental issues for the industry, taking into account the marker pollutants of emissions.

     A list of marker substances has been defined for the technological process (for more detailed information, see section 6 of this BAT handbook).

     The method of determining the list of marker substances was based primarily on the study of design, technological documentation and information obtained during the CTA conducted by enterprises on the scope of this BAT handbook.

     Based on the results of the analysis, taking into account the requirements of the waste classifier of the Republic of Kazakhstan, 12 waste groups were grouped and identified, agreed upon by the members of the TRG. The list of waste groups and names defined as marker pollutants in this BAT handbook is not normative and is not exhaustive and can be expanded and supplemented as necessary according to the waste classifier of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

     From the list of pollutants present in the emissions of the main sources of pollution, a list of marker substances was determined separately for each technological process, provided they meet the following characteristics:

     the substance is characteristic of the technological process under consideration (substances justified in the design and technological documentation);

     The substance has a significant impact on the environment and/or public health, including those with high toxicity, proven carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic properties, cumulative effect, as well as substances related to persistent organic pollutants.;

     2) identification and description of candidate techniques aimed at a comprehensive solution to the environmental problems of the industry.

     When forming the list of candidate techniques, technologies, methods, methods, processes, practices, approaches and solutions were considered that are aimed at comprehensively solving environmental problems in the field of application of this BAT handbook, from among those available in the Republic of Kazakhstan (identified as a result of CT) and in international documents in the field of BAT, as a result of which a list was determined (number) of candidate technicians listed in section 5.

     For each candidate technique, a technological description and considerations regarding the technical applicability of the candidate techniques are provided; environmental indicators and potential benefits from the introduction of the candidate technique; economic indicators, potential Cross-media effects and necessary conditions;

     3) analysis and comparison of candidate techniques in accordance with indicators of technical applicability, environmental performance and economic efficiency.

     The candidate techniques considered as NDT were evaluated in the following order:

     evaluation of the candidate technique according to the parameters of technological applicability;

     evaluation of the candidate technique according to the parameters of environmental performance.

     An analysis of the environmental effect of the introduction of candidate techniques was carried out, expressed in quantitative terms (unit of measurement or percentage of reduction/increase), in relation to the following indicators:

     atmospheric air: prevention and/or reduction of emissions;

     Water consumption: reduction of total water consumption;

     wastewater: prevention and/or reduction of discharges;

     soil, subsoil, groundwater: prevention and (or) reduction of the impact on the components of the natural environment;

     waste: prevention and/or reduction of production waste generation/accumulation and/or its recycling, waste recovery and energy waste disposal;

     consumption of raw materials: reduction of consumption, substitution with alternative materials and (or) production and consumption waste;

     energy consumption: reduction of consumption of energy and fuel resources; use of alternative energy sources; possibility of regeneration and recycling of substances and heat recovery; reduction of consumption of electric and thermal energy for own needs;

     noise, vibration, electromagnetic and thermal effects: reducing the level of physical impact.

     The absence or presence of cross-media effects was also taken into account.

     The compliance or non-compliance of the candidate technique with each of the above indicators was based on information obtained during the CTA.

     1. Evaluation of the candidate technique according to the parameters of economic efficiency.

     An assessment of the economic efficiency of the candidate equipment is not mandatory, however, according to the decision of the majority of the members of the TRG, the economic assessment of the NDT was carried out by the members of the TRG, representatives of industrial enterprises, in relation to some techniques implemented and operated in well-functioning industrial installations/plants.

     The fact of industrial implementation was established as a result of the analysis of the information revealed as a result of the CTA.

     2. Determination of technological indicators related to the use of BAT.

     The determination of emission levels and other technological indicators related to the use of BAT is in most cases used in relation to techniques that reduce the negative anthropogenic impact and control pollution at the final stage of the production process.

     Thus, the technological indicators related to the use of BAT were determined, among other things, taking into account the levels of national indicators, which is confirmed by the reports of the conducted CTAs.

2.2. Criteria for attributing techniques to NDT

     In accordance with paragraph 3 of Article 113 of the Environmental Code, the criteria for determining BAT are:

     1) using low-waste technology;

     2) use of less dangerous substances;

     3) facilitating the recovery and recycling of substances generated and used in the technological process, as well as waste, as applicable;

     4) Comparability of processes, devices and operational methods successfully tested at the industrial level;

     5) Technological breakthroughs and changes in scientific knowledge;

     6) the nature, impact and volume of the relevant emissions into the environment;

     7) dates of commissioning for new and existing facilities;

     8) the length of time required for the implementation of BAT;

     9) consumption level and properties of raw materials and resources (including water) used in processes, and energy efficiency;

     10) the need to prevent or minimize the overall negative impact of emissions on the environment and risks to the environment;

     11) the need to prevent accidents and minimize negative consequences for the environment;

     12) information published by international organizations;

     13) industrial implementation at two or more facilities in the Republic of Kazakhstan or abroad.

2.3. Economic aspects of BAT implementation

2.3.1. Approaches to the economic assessment of BAT

2.3.2. Methods of economic assessment of BAT

     The economic assessment of the effectiveness of BAT implementation can be carried out in various ways:

     on the investment validity of costs;

     Cost-benefit analysis;

     in relation to costs in relation to a number of key performance indicators: turnover, operating profit, value added, and more (if relevant data is available);

     in terms of the ratio of costs and the achieved environmental effect.

     Each of the methods of economic assessment reflects the result of the implementation of environmental protection measures for various aspects of the production, economic and environmental activities of the enterprise and can serve as an additional source of decision-making on BAT. The operator of the facility uses the most appropriate method of economic assessment of BAT, taking into account industry and production specifics, or a combination of both.

2.3.3. Investment reasonableness of costs

     It should be understood that BATS (especially environmental protection) are not always the subject of commercial activities for profit, and discounted cash flows may have negative values during the investment analysis of a BAT implementation project.

     The applicability of BAT is determined, among other things, by the investment feasibility of technology and equipment costs, the cost of capital, the payback period, the prices of raw materials and other factors.

     From the point of view of return on investment, BAT can be estimated as:

     profitable - in case of receiving additional income from their sale or saving financial resources.;

     unprofitable in terms of revenue, but acceptable in terms of current or future financial condition;

     unprofitable and excessive in their financial costs;

     achieving the required environmental performance compared to costs;

     having unreasonably high costs compared to the achieved environmental effect.

2.3.4. Cost-benefit analysis

     In addition to the achieved environmental effect, the use of BAT in many cases reduces the consumption of physical natural resources - raw materials, fuel, electricity, heat, water, etc., represented in monetary terms. In this case, BAT can be evaluated in terms of the benefits obtained from its application compared to the costs incurred.

     In addition, the implementation of BAT may result in additional sources of income: the sale of treated wastewater for irrigation and irrigation needs, silt storage deposits to agriculture, captured emission components, recycling of secondary resources and/or their use for new production, thermal disposal, etc.

     The overall economic benefits of using BAT may exceed the costs and become an incentive factor for its implementation.

2.3.5. The ratio of costs and key economic indicators

     To determine the appropriateness of investments in environmental protection measures, the ratio of expenditures on BAT and a number of key production and economic results of activities can be analyzed: gross income, turnover, operating profit, cost, and others.

     In this analysis, it is possible to apply a scale of reference values obtained from a survey of EU enterprises, which rank such ratios into three categories.:

     acceptable costs - if investment costs have little effect on key profitability indicators and these costs can be considered acceptable without further discussion;

     The discussed ones are average costs, when it seems difficult or impossible to give a clear assessment of the feasibility of investments and the result requires consideration taking into account additional factors.;

     unacceptable costs - if investments are excessive in relation to key performance indicators.

     Table.2.1. Indicative reference values for the feasibility of investments in environmental protection

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No. p / p

The ratio of annual costs and investments for BAT to key performance indicators

Acceptable

Discussed

Unacceptable

1

Costs / turnover (revenue)

<0,5 %

0,5 - 5 %

> 5 %

2

Costs / annual income (operating profit)

<10 %

10 - 100 %

> 100 %

3

Costs / added value

<2 %

2 - 50 %

> 50 %

4

Initial investment/ total investment

<10 %

10 - 100 %

> 100 %

     The scale of reference values allows you to quickly exclude technologies with obviously high costs or identify techniques whose implementation costs can be considered feasible without any additional analysis.

     However, due to the large range of values within the "discussed" category, a significant part of environmental investments may fall within this range, which makes them quite uncertain for an unambiguous conclusion about the validity of investments. In this case, in addition to the conditions prevailing at a particular enterprise, the feasibility of investments should be assessed taking into account additional industry aspects, such as the period of the BAT project implementation, the overall level of investment in environmental protection, the current market and financial situation, and others.

     In general, the scale of reference values is considered as an evaluation guideline applicable in most cases of BAT assessment, and can also be used to build ranges of BAT application, taking into account the financial and economic condition of a particular enterprise.

2.3.6. Cost increase

     An essential factor for determining the applicability of BAT is also the additional costs that may be incurred when introducing technology into the current production process, since the introduction of BAT increases the cost of services and reduces the potential of BAT in terms of economic efficiency.

     The percentage ratio of the annual costs of introducing NDT and the total production cost of services expresses the increase in cost, taking into account the additional costs of the enterprise for NDT. Determining the cost increase allows you to compare the cost of implementing BAT with the production cost of services, as well as determine the impact of BAT on operating margins.

2.3.7. Cost-benefit ratio

     One of the main ways to economically evaluate BAT is to analyze the expenditure of funds on the implementation of BAT and the environmental result achieved from its implementation in the form of reducing/preventing the emission of pollutants and/ or reducing/preventing waste. The relative ratio of these values determines the cost effectiveness of BAT per unit mass/volume of the pollutant and/or waste being reduced on an annual basis.

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Cost efficiency =

Total annual costs

Annual emission reduction

     Annual costs are understood as the sum of capital (investment) costs distributed over the entire life of the BAT on an annual basis, and operating (operational) costs. The recalculation of capital expenditures on an annual basis is carried out by the annual conversion coefficient (as a function of the BAT service life and the discount rate), which in an economic sense represents the rate of linear depreciation of fixed assets.

     Discounted annual costs reflect the volume of investments for the BAT implementation project, taking into account the time cost of capital and the service life of the corresponding equipment.

     In order to correctly determine the annual costs of BAT, sufficient detail of investment capital investments and the distribution of operating expenses according to the relevant cost items must be ensured.

     When calculating annual costs, the formula is used:

     Annual cost= I0r1+rn1+rn-1+OC,

     where:

     I0 - total investment expenses in the year of acquisition;

     OS - annual net operating expenses;

     r is the discount rate.;

     n is the expected service life.

     The result of the ratio of annual costs to the achieved environmental result expresses the amount of money spent on reducing pollutant emissions per unit mass/volume. Comparing the calculation results for different bats allows the BAT operator to determine which one is more economically efficient and allows spending less money on the same emission reduction.

2.3.8. Payments and fines for negative impact on the environment

     In addition to directly analyzing the indicators of the economic effectiveness of BAT, it may be useful to calculate payments and fines payable for negative environmental impacts in the presence of BAT and in its absence. The general procedure, rates of payment for negative environmental impact and environmental fines are regulated by the tax and administrative legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

     It should be noted that in addition to payments established by tax legislation at the national level, local representative bodies (maslikhats) have been granted the right to raise the current rates of payment for negative environmental impact within the relevant administrative units.

     At the same time, certain regulatory measures have been taken to stimulate the introduction and application of BAT at the legislative level. In particular, for enterprises that have received a comprehensive environmental permit, a zero coefficient is set to the rates of payments to the budget due for negative environmental impact.

     At the same time, starting in 2025, for the active implementation by industry entities of environmental protection measures and the use of BAT, in the absence of a comprehensive environmental permit, an increasing coefficient of 2 (a twofold increase in payments) will be applied to the current rates of payment for negative environmental impact on category I enterprises, starting in 2028 - coefficient 4 and starting in 2031. - the coefficient is 8.

Additionally, for the implementation of emissions that have a negative impact on the environment, including without an environmental permit for an existing facility, a fine is imposed in the amount of ten to twenty thousand percent of the corresponding fee rate for the excess amount of pollutants.

     The use of BAT with the receipt of appropriate environmental permits allows enterprises to achieve significant savings in environmental payments and fines for negative environmental impacts.

2.3.9. Calculation "on installation"

     The process of implementing BAT measures, especially in large industrial enterprises, is often an integral part of the overall process of reconstruction or modernization of production. In order to exclude the impact of investment and operating costs incurred by the facility operator during these processes or the implementation of other investment projects, information on the costs of reducing the negative impact on the environment should represent only that part of the costs that are spent exclusively on the BAT in question.

     In such conditions, objective data are data on the costs of BAT "on the installation", that is, directly aimed at BAT, reducing/preventing emissions of pollutants and/or waste into the environment, or BAT, implementing technologies for their disposal using this BAT. When calculating "on installation", the total cost includes the cost of:

     basic technologies and equipment;

     additional/auxiliary technologies and equipment that are an integral part of BAT;

     pre/post-treatment facilities, consumables, raw materials and reagents, without which the use of BAT is technologically impossible.

     The "on-site" calculation makes it possible to eliminate the uncertainty factor in classifying the capital and operating expenses of the facility operator, and compare the company's costs for alternative bats by comparable indicators.

3. Applied processes: technological, technical solutions currently used

     This section of the BAT handbook contains a description of the main technological processes and methods, as well as their combinations used in waste recovery. The most general classification of recovery methods is as follows:

     auxiliary waste management operations (waste reception and preparation for recovery);

     mechanical and physical;

     biological;

     physico-chemical;

     The following sections describe waste recovery methods and technologies in more detail.

3.1. Auxiliary operations in waste management (reception and preparation of waste for recovery)

     The preliminary preparation of waste for recovery includes a number of technological steps aimed at ensuring safe, efficient and environmentally sound waste management before its disposal, neutralization or re-involvement in economic turnover.

     Main technological processes: waste control and reception.

     Upon arrival of specialized vehicles at the site, responsible employees carry out visual and, if necessary, dosimetric control of solid and liquid waste. Next, the accompanying documents are checked, including the availability of a hazardous waste passport. After confirming that the waste meets the requirements, it is weighed and recorded in the reception log. The qualitative and quantitative characteristics of waste are recorded in the accounting documentation.

     Accumulation (temporary storage): Prior to the start of processing, waste is stored in specially designated, equipped areas - airtight containers, tanks or on sites with a protective coating that eliminates contamination of soil and groundwater.

     Waste sorting: one of the key steps to efficiently distribute waste in the areas of further management. Reuse, recycling, and neutralization. Waste is divided into types - organic, inorganic, recyclable, hazardous, and others. Components unsuitable for recovery are removed (for example, substances containing dangerous impurities or inappropriate processing technologies).

     Wet waste, especially of organic origin, can be dried to stabilize, increase caloric content (in the case of energy use), or prepare for biological processing (for example, composting or anaerobic digestion). Removing moisture also reduces weight and reduces the risk of microbiological activity during accumulation.

     Mixing (if necessary) is carried out strictly within the framework of technological requirements and only for homogeneous, chemically compatible fractions. It is prohibited to mix hazardous waste with each other or with non-hazardous waste, except in cases stipulated by technological regulations (for example, when composting organic matter with sawdust to regulate the ratio of carbon and nitrogen).

3.2. Mechanical and physical waste treatment

     Mechanical and physical waste processing are key technological processes used for most types of waste, including medical and biological (after disinfection), mercury-containing (after demercurization), oil-containing, electronic equipment, solid industrial, mining, polymer, municipal and construction waste. These methods are based on the physical transformation of waste without changing its chemical composition, which makes them economically profitable and environmentally friendly.

     The main technological processes include primary crushing and crushing (shredders, crushers), separation of components (magnetic, air, vibration separation), granulation and agglomeration of polymers, compaction and briquetting of waste, as well as sorting and sampling of prepared raw materials.

     The key advantages of these methods are the preservation of the initial properties of materials, low energy consumption compared to chemical methods (40-60% less cost), the ability to return to the production cycle up to 60-90% of raw materials (for individual fractions) and fast payback of equipment (1-3 years for medium-sized enterprises). However, the technologies also have limitations: they require high-quality pre-sorting (the degree of purity of raw materials is at least 85%), demonstrate reduced efficiency for complex composites (multilayer materials, composites) and require additional processing for hazardous fractions. Despite this, mechanical and physical recycling form the technological basis of a cyclical economy, allowing waste of various categories to be maximally involved in reuse (up to 70% of the total volume) with minimal environmental impact, which is especially important in conditions of increasing waste generation (3-5% annually in the Republic of Kazakhstan) and the need to comply with environmental regulations.

3.3. Biological waste treatment

     Biological waste recycling is a complex of nature-like technologies that use biochemical processes to transform organic waste components into useful products. These methods are particularly effective for the following categories: hazardous mercury-containing waste after preliminary demercurization, oil-containing waste with low and moderate pollution, organic waste as the main target group, including food and agricultural waste, waste from electronic equipment for processing organic components, solid industrial waste with an organic fraction, mining waste containing biodegradable components, polymer waste of biological origin, municipal waste with a predominance of organic matter, and construction waste of wood origin.

     The main biotechnological processes include aerobic composting (for solid organic waste), anaerobic digestion to produce biogas (for liquid and pasty waste), vermicomposting (using worms), phytoremediation (purification using plants) and enzymatic processing.

     The key advantages of biological processing are low energy consumption (60-70% less than that of thermal methods), the possibility of obtaining valuable products (compost, biogas, feed additives) and minimal environmental impact. However, the methods have limitations in terms of processing speed, requirements for the composition of raw materials (optimal organic content of at least 40-50%) and the need for careful control of process parameters (temperature, humidity, pH). The introduction of biological recycling methods makes it possible to reduce the volume of organic waste disposal, which is especially important in the context of meeting environmental standards and the transition to a cyclical economy.

3.4. Physico-chemical waste treatment

     Physico-chemical waste recycling is a complex of highly efficient technologies based on a combination of physical processes and chemical reactions to transform waste into safe forms or valuable products. These methods are used for a wide range of wastes: medical and biological after preliminary disinfection, hazardous mercury-containing through demercurization processes, oil-containing through coagulation and flotation, organic through catalytic decomposition, electronic equipment during extraction of precious metals, solid industrial during neutralization of hazardous components, mining during sludge processing, polymer through pyrolysis and depolymerization, municipal during processing hazardous fractions and construction during the disposal of pollutants.

     Key methods include: low-temperature decomposition (pyrolysis, gasification), chemical dissolution, catalytic oxidation, electrochemical processes, membrane separation and sorption purification.

The main advantages are a high degree of neutralization (up to 99% for hazardous components), the ability to extract valuable elements and the compactness of installations. However, the methods require significant energy consumption, complex equipment, and precise parameter control, which limits their cost-effectiveness for certain types of waste.

3.5. Current levels of emissions to the environment

     Current levels of environmental emissions related to waste management are characterized by a significant variety of pollutants, due to the different types of waste and the methods used for their processing. Depending on the category of waste (industrial, municipal, hazardous) and the processing technologies used, various pollutants can enter the environment: heavy metals - mainly from electronic and mercury-containing waste; volatile organic compounds - during mechanical processing of plastics; petroleum products - from oil-containing waste; as well as suspended particles of various origin. A particular problem is the processes of chemical interaction of waste components during processing, which can lead to the formation of new toxic compounds. The greatest emissions are observed with insufficient wastewater treatment from processing plants and imperfect dust and gas treatment systems. Modern monitoring systems record local exceedances of the maximum permissible concentrations in the areas of waste management facilities, which requires improved technologies for mechanical, biological, and physico-chemical processing to minimize the negative impact on the environment.

     Table 3.1. Technological indicators for pollutant emissions by main processes for 2022-2023 (Enterprise No. 1)

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      Таблица 3.2. Технологические показатели по выбросам загрязняющих веществ по основным процессам (Предприятие №2)

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      Таблица 3.3. Технологические показатели по выбросам загрязняющих веществ по основным процессам за 2022-2023 годы (Предприятие №3)

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      Таблица 3.4. Технологические показатели по сбросам загрязняющих веществ (Предприятие №3)

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3.6. Energy efficiency

     Waste recovery is a complex, energy-intensive process involving several stages with various technological solutions. The energy efficiency of each of these stages is determined by the balance of input and output energy flows. This section discusses the main stages of the production process, the applied technical solutions and their energy flows, taking into account energy efficiency.

     When preparing waste, mechanical processing is carried out, which includes crushing and crushing to reduce its size, increase the efficiency of processing and improve the characteristics of subsequent processes. Crushing allows you to reduce the volume of waste and prepare it for subsequent crushing. Next, drying is carried out, which is necessary to remove excess moisture, since wet waste requires additional energy for processing. Some types of waste require chemical treatment to remove unwanted components, improve their characteristics and bring them to a standard composition. Chemical treatment includes the neutralization of acid and alkali waste, stabilization of heavy metals and pre-oxidation. After mechanical and chemical treatment of waste, work is underway to prepare raw material mixtures. To increase the energy value of waste, they can be used as part of composite materials or mixtures suitable for further processing. This makes it possible to stabilize the composition of waste and optimize its properties.

     Based on data from the State Energy Register https://aisger .kz and the conducted comprehensive technological audits have deduced the average specific energy values for the waste treatment process are presented below.

     Table 3.5. Specific energy indicators for the waste treatment process during its recovery

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    The main waste recycling process is a series of processes aimed at converting waste into useful materials or energy. There are several processing methods, depending on the composition and properties of the waste. The main process of waste recovery includes recycling, chemical and biological processing. Recycling refers to the physical and mechanical recycling of waste for the purpose of reuse of materials. For example, the processing of metals, plastics, glass and paper requires appropriate processing lines with a certain level of energy consumption. Chemical recycling is used for complex wastes such as plastics and organic compounds, allowing them to be decomposed into simpler substances. For example, catalytic depolymerization and hydrolysis use chemical reactions to convert waste into valuable products. Biological processing is used for organic waste with composting and anaerobic fermentation processes. During these processes, biogas is formed, which can be used to generate energy.

     The final stages of waste recycling and recovery are heat recovery, as recovery involves recycling and reuse. The heat recovery process is an important part of the overall energy efficiency of waste recycling. This process makes it possible to use the generated heat for energy production, for heating systems and for the supply of warm water. Also, heat is used to preheat the raw materials. The use of outgoing heat to preheat the waste helps to reduce the energy cost of heating up to operating temperature.

     In general, waste heat and residual process heat are used as part of incoming energy flows. The outgoing energy flows are hot water, steam, and electricity.

     The total specific energy consumption for waste treatment is determined by the chosen technology, the composition of waste and the level of automation of the process. According to the average indicators, based on data from the State Energy Register and integrated technological audits, they are determined at the next level.

     Table 3.6. Total specific energy consumption for waste treatment

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    Taking into account all processes, the average specific energy consumption during waste recovery is 100-300 kWh/ton. This is a generalized indicator that takes into account different types of waste and recycling technologies, and it is typical for mixed waste with low energy intensity, such as paper, textiles or biological waste. When processing and restoring metals (aluminum, steel), plastic and glass, energy costs are significantly higher.:

     due to the high energy consumption of the metal melting process from 500 to 1,500 kWh/t;

     depending on the plastic recycling method, from 300 to 900 kWh/t;

     high temperature melting of glass from 500 to 800 kWh/t https://elkamehr.com/en/comparing-recyclability-aluminum-vs-other-metals-and-materials /.

     The effectiveness of waste recovery is largely determined by the correct choice of technical solutions at each stage. The introduction of energy-efficient techniques makes it possible to reduce the unit costs of electricity and fuel, increase heat recovery and minimize the negative impact on the environment. Modern approaches to optimizing energy flows ensure more sustainable operation of waste recovery enterprises.

     The use of energy-efficient best available techniques in waste recovery and recycling can significantly reduce the burden on natural resources, minimize greenhouse gas emissions and increase the economic efficiency of enterprises.

4. General best available techniques for preventing and/or reducing emissions and resource consumption

     This section describes the general methods used in the implementation of technological processes to reduce their negative impact on the environment and do not require technical retrofitting, reconstruction of the facility, which have a negative impact on the environment.

     The fundamental steps in determining the methods aimed at reducing the negative impact on the environment discussed in this section are:

     identification of key environmental issues;

     exploring the methods most suitable for solving these key problems;

     choosing the best available available methods.

     When defining BAT, it is necessary to apply a general approach to understanding the production process. It should be noted that many methods directly or indirectly affect several environmental aspects (emissions, discharges, waste generation, land pollution, energy efficiency).

     The methods can be presented individually or in combination to achieve a high level of environmental protection in the industries covered by this document.

     Many of the techniques and individual stages of the production processes are common, so they are described together. Common stages:

     management systems;

     energy management;

     monitoring;

     waste management.

4.1. Environmental Management System (EMS)

     Description

     SEM is a method that allows plant operators to solve environmental problems on a systematic and obvious basis. EMS is the most effective and efficient when it forms an integral part of the overall management system and operational management of production.

     Technical description

     The SAM focuses the operator's attention on the environmental characteristics of the installation. In particular, by applying clear operating procedures for both normal and non-standard operating conditions, as well as by defining appropriate lines of responsibility.

     All existing EMS include the concept of continuous improvement of environmental management. There are various process schemes, but most EMS are based on the "PDCA" (plan-do-check-execute) cycle, which is widely used in other organizational management contexts. A cycle is an iterative dynamic model where the completion of one cycle occurs at the beginning of the next.

     An EMS can take the form of a standardized or non-standard ("configurable") system. The implementation and compliance with an internationally recognized standardized system can enhance the credibility of EMS, especially if properly externally verified. Non-standardized systems can, in principle, be equally effective, provided they are properly designed, implemented, and audited.

     An EMS can take the form of a standardized or non-standard ("configurable") system. The implementation and compliance with an internationally recognized standardized system can enhance the credibility of EMS, especially if properly externally verified. Non-standardized systems can, in principle, be equally effective, provided they are properly designed, implemented, and audited.

     The SAM may contain the following components:

     1) the interest of management, including senior management at the company and enterprise levels (for example, the head of the enterprise);

     2) analysis, including determining the context of the organization, identifying the needs and expectations of stakeholders, determining the characteristics of the enterprise related to possible risks to the environment (and human health), as well as applicable legal requirements related to the environment;

     3) environmental policy, which includes continuous improvement of the installation through management;

     4) planning and setting the necessary procedures, goals and objectives in combination with financial planning and investments;

     5) performing procedures that require special attention:

     structure and responsibility;

     recruitment, training, awareness and competence of staff whose work may affect environmental performance;

     internal and external communications;

     employee engagement at all levels of the organization;

     documentation (creation and maintenance of written procedures for monitoring activities with significant environmental impact, as well as relevant records);

     effective operational planning and process control;

     maintenance program;

     emergency preparedness and response, including prevention and/or mitigation of the adverse (environmental) consequences of emergencies;

     ensuring compliance with environmental legislation;

     6) ensuring compliance with the environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan;

     7) checking the operability and taking corrective measures, paying special attention to the following actions:

     monitoring and measurement;

     corrective and preventive actions;

     record keeping;

     independent internal and external audits to determine the compliance of the EMS with planned activities and verify whether it is being properly implemented and maintained.;

     8) Review of the EMS and its continued suitability, adequacy and effectiveness by senior management;

     9) preparation of regular reporting provided for by environmental legislation;

     10) validation by a certification body or an external EMS verifier;

     11) following the development of cleaner technologies;

     12) consideration of the environmental impact at the design stage of the new plant and throughout its entire service life, before decommissioning;

     13) applying industry benchmarking on a regular basis (comparing your company's performance with the best companies in the industry);

     14) Waste management system;

     15) in installations/facilities with multiple operators, the creation of associations in which the roles, responsibilities and coordination of operational procedures of each installation operator are defined in order to enhance cooperation between different operators;

     16) inventory of wastewater and air emissions.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Maintaining and following clear procedures in routine and non-routine situations and the appropriate allocation of responsibilities ensures that the company always meets the conditions of environmental resolution, achieves goals and solves tasks. EMS ensures continuous improvement of environmental performance.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     All significant input flows (including energy consumption) and output flows (emissions, discharges, waste) are interconnected by the operator in the short-medium and long-term aspects, taking into account the specifics of financial planning and investment cycles. This means, for example, that the application of short-term solutions for cleaning emissions and discharges ("at the end of the pipe") This can lead to a long-term increase in energy consumption and delay investments in potentially more beneficial environmental protection solutions.

     Under the current situation, the company has an effective environmental management system, which is aimed at solving environmental problems, in which all employees participate: from the manager to the worker. An established management system reduces emissions into the atmosphere and natural reservoirs and prevents soil pollution by increasing:

     disciplines of technology;

     the use of modern technology;

     implementation of technical re-equipment.

     Cross-media effects

     Environmental management methods are designed in such a way as to minimize the impact of the installation on the environment as a whole.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     The EMS components can be applied to all installations.

     The scope (for example, the level of detail) and the forms of EMS (both standardized and non-standardized) should correspond to the operational characteristics of the technological equipment used and the level of its impact on the environment.

     Economy

Determining the cost and economic effectiveness of implementing and maintaining an existing EMS at the appropriate level is individual in each specific case.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     SAM can provide a number of advantages:

     improving the company's environmental performance;

     improving the basis for decision-making;

     improving the understanding of the company's environmental aspects;

     improving staff motivation;

     additional opportunities to reduce operating costs and improve product quality;

     improving environmental performance;

     reducing costs related to environmental violations, non-compliance with established requirements, etc.

4.2. Energy Management System (EnMS)

     Description

     BAT consists in the implementation and maintenance of the operation of the EnMS. The implementation and functioning of the EnMS can be ensured as part of an existing management system (for example, an EMS) or by creating a separate energy management system.

     This technique is based on a set of administrative actions aimed at ensuring rational consumption of energy resources and improving the energy efficiency of the management facility, including the development and implementation of energy conservation and energy efficiency policies, action plans, procedures and methods for monitoring, energy consumption assessment and other actions aimed at improving energy efficiency.

     Technical description

     The composition of the ENM includes, to the extent applicable to specific conditions, the following elements: the commitment of senior management to the energy efficiency management system at the enterprise level; the energy efficiency policy approved by the top management of the enterprise; planning, as well as defining goals and objectives; development and compliance with procedures that determine the functioning of the energy management system in accordance with with the requirements of the international standard ISO 50001.

     The management and procedures of the system should pay special attention to the following issues:

     organizational structure of the system; staff responsibility, training, and competence development in the field of energy efficiency;

     provision of internal information exchange (meetings, e-mail, information stands, production newspaper, etc.);

     involving staff in activities aimed at improving energy efficiency;

     maintaining documentation and ensuring effective control of production processes;

     ensuring compliance with legal requirements in the field of energy efficiency and relevant agreements (if any);

     determination of internal energy efficiency indicators and their periodic assessment, as well as their systematic and regular comparison with industry and other confirmed data.

     When evaluating the effectiveness of previously performed and implementing corrective measures, special attention should be paid to the following issues::

     monitoring and measurements;

     corrective and preventive actions;

     maintaining documentation;

     internal (or external) audit in order to assess the compliance of the system with the established requirements, the effectiveness of its implementation and its maintenance at the appropriate level;

     regular review of the EnMS by senior management for compliance with objectives, adequacy and effectiveness;

     consideration of possible environmental impacts associated with their subsequent decommissioning during the design of new installations and systems;

     development of own energy-efficient technologies and monitoring of achievements in the field of energy efficiency methods outside the enterprise.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     The introduction of an energy management system helps to reduce energy and resource consumption by an average of 3-5%, improve environmental performance and comply with legal norms and requirements.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     An assessment of the experience of implementing an energy management system at enterprises both in Kazakhstan and abroad shows that the organization and implementation of the system reduces energy and resource consumption by 3-5%, which consequently leads to a reduction in emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases. The application of an energy management system in enterprises plays a huge role in limiting greenhouse gas emissions.

     Cross-media effects

     The cross-media effects of implementing an energy management system in waste recovery processes cover many aspects, including economic, energy, environmental, and social benefits.

     The EnMS helps to reduce energy intensity, specific energy consumption for waste recovery and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     The components described above can generally be applied to all objects within the scope of this document. The scope (e.g., level of detail) and nature of the EnMS (e.g., standardized or non-standardized) will relate (volume and nature) to the nature, scale and complexity of the installation, as well as the range of environmental impacts it may have.

     This technique has been successfully used in Germany at BASF SE in Ludwigshafen. The implementation of ISO 50001 has reduced specific energy consumption by 25% and increased equipment efficiency by 8%. In Canada, an energy management system was implemented at the Covanta plant in British Columbia, which resulted in a 20% reduction in energy consumption due to leakage control and load optimization. In China, at the Shanghai Laogang Renewable Energy facility, the introduction of EnMS increased the use of secondary energy by 15% and allowed optimizing heat flows.

     Economy

     Depending on the method used in each specific case.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     The driving forces for the implementation of energy efficiency measures are:

     improving energy efficiency;

     improving environmental performance;

     increasing staff motivation and engagement;

     additional opportunities to reduce operating costs and improve product quality.

4.3. Emissions monitoring

     Description

     Monitoring is the systematic observation of changes in chemical or physical parameters in various environments, based on repeated measurements or observations with a certain frequency, in accordance with documented and agreed procedures. Monitoring is carried out to obtain reliable (accurate) information about the content of pollutants in waste streams (emissions, discharges) to control and predict possible environmental impacts.

     Technical description

     The frequency of monitoring depends on the type of pollutant (toxicity, effects on wasps and humans), the characteristics of the material used, the capacity of the enterprise, as well as the methods used to reduce emissions, and it should be sufficient to obtain representative data for the controlled parameter.

     When monitoring atmospheric air, the main attention should be paid to the state of the environment in the zone of active pollution (for sources of atmospheric pollution), as well as in the impact zone in cases where this is necessary to monitor compliance with environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan and environmental quality standards.

     The methods used for monitoring, measuring instruments, equipment used, procedures and tools must comply with the standards applicable in the territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The use of international standards should be regulated by the regulatory legal acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

     Before carrying out measurements, it is necessary to draw up a monitoring plan, which should take into account such indicators as: the operating mode of the installation (continuous, intermittent, start and stop operations, load changes), the operational condition of gas or wastewater treatment plants, and factors of possible thermodynamic effects.

     When determining measurement methods, determining sampling points, the number of samples and the duration of sampling, factors such as:

     the operating mode of the installation and possible reasons for its change;

     the potential danger of emissions;

     the time required for sampling in order to obtain the most complete information about the detectable pollutant in the gas composition.

     Usually, when selecting an operating mode for measurement, a mode is selected in which maximum emissions (maximum load) can be detected.

     In this case, to determine the concentration of pollutants in wastewater, a random sample or combined daily samples (24 hours) can be used, based on sampling in proportion to consumption or averaged over time.

     Dilution of gases or wastewater is unacceptable during sampling, as the results obtained cannot be considered objective.

     Monitoring of emissions can be carried out both by instrumental measurements and by calculation method.

     The measurement results should be representative, mutually comparable, and clearly describe the appropriate operating condition of the installation.

     Sampling points

     Sampling points must comply with the requirements of the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of measurements. The sampling points should:

     be clearly identified;

     if possible, have a constant gas flow at the sampling point;

     have the necessary energy sources;

     have access and a place to place devices and a specialist;

     ensure compliance with workplace safety requirements.

     Components and parameters

the use of calculation methods using coefficients to determine emissions from storage tanks, the timing of loading and unloading operations, as well as emissions resulting from the activities of auxiliary sites (sewage treatment plants, etc.);

     the use of optical monitoring devices (detection and determination of concentrations of pollutants as a result of leakage from the downwind side of the enterprise using electromagnetic radiation that is absorbed and/or dispersed by pollutants);

     the material balance method (accounting for the input flow of a substance, its accumulation, the output flow of this substance, as well as its decomposition during the technological process, after which the remainder is considered to have entered the environment in the form of emissions);

     the release of tracer gas to various selected points or zones on the territory of the enterprise, as well as to points located at different heights in these areas;

     similarity assessment method (quantification of emissions based on downwind air quality measurements, taking into account meteorological data);

     assessment of wet and dry deposition of pollutants from the leeward side of the enterprise, which will allow us to subsequently assess the dynamics of these emissions (for a month or a year).

     There are no measurement methods that are applicable for general use at all sites, and measurement methodologies differ from site to site. There are significant impacts from other sources in the vicinity of the industrial site, such as ancillary production, transportation, and other sources that make extrapolation very difficult. Therefore, the results obtained are relative or are benchmarks that may indicate a reduction achieved through measures taken to reduce uncontrolled emissions.

     Sampling points must meet occupational hygiene and safety standards, be easily and quickly accessible, and be appropriately sized.

     Measuring unorganized emissions from area sources is more complex and requires more carefully developed methods, as:

     The emission characteristics are regulated by meteorological conditions and are subject to large fluctuations.;

     The source of the emissions may have a large area and may be determined inaccurately.;

     errors with respect to the measured data can be significant.

     The described methods for monitoring unorganized emissions have been developed taking into account international experience and are at the stage where they cannot provide accurate and reliable actual indicators, but they allow us to show indicative emission levels or trends in possible emissions increases over a certain period of time. If one or more of the proposed methods are used, it is necessary to take into account local experience, knowledge of local conditions, special configuration of the installation, etc.

     The methods and tools used to monitor emissions into the atmospheric air are carried out in accordance with the approved Program of Industrial Environmental Control.

4.3.2. Monitoring of discharges into water bodies

     Industrial monitoring of water resources provides a unified system for monitoring and monitoring the company's activities for timely identification and assessment of ongoing changes, forecasting measures aimed at the rational use of water resources and mitigation of environmental impacts.

     As part of the industrial monitoring of the state of water resources, it is planned to monitor water consumption and sanitation systems and monitor the sources of impact on the water resources of the area under consideration, as well as their rational use.

     The monitoring results allow timely identification and assessment of environmental changes in the course of production activities.

     The continuous measurement method, along with the assessment of pollutant emissions into the atmospheric air, is also widely used to determine the parameters of wastewater from industrial enterprises. Measurements are carried out directly in the wastewater stream.

     The main parameter, which is almost always set during continuous measurements, is the volume flow of wastewater. Additionally, during continuous monitoring in the wastewater stream, the following parameters can be determined:

     pH and electrical conductivity;

     temperature;

     turbidity.

     The choice to use continuous monitoring for discharges depends on:

     the expected impact of wastewater discharges on the environment, taking into account the specifics of local conditions;

     the need to monitor and control the performance of a wastewater treatment plant to be able to quickly respond to changes in the parameters of treated water (at the same time, the minimum frequency of measurements may depend on the design of the treatment facilities and the volume of wastewater discharges);

     availability and reliability of measuring equipment and the nature of wastewater discharge;

     the cost of continuous measurement (economic feasibility).

     The list of controlled substances should include marker pollutants indicating the control methods used (instrumental).

     To monitor wastewater discharge, there are a number of standard procedures for sampling and analyzing water and wastewater samples, including:

     A single (point, simple) sample is one sample taken from a wastewater stream.;

     composite (averaged, mixed) sample is a sample taken continuously for a certain period, or a sample consisting of several samples taken continuously or periodically for a certain period and then mixed;

     A control point sample is a mixed sample of at least five simple samples taken for a maximum of two hours with an interval of at least two minutes and then mixed.

     Monitoring of groundwater.

     Monitoring of groundwater during waste recovery is an important aspect of environmental risk management related to waste treatment, neutralization and disposal activities. Waste recovery facilities and related technological sites can potentially have an impact on the state of groundwater. This can occur, for example, through filtration of polluted surface runoff from temporary storage areas of industrial, hazardous chemical, oil-containing and other waste, through leaks from pipelines and reservoirs containing water, oils, chemical reagents, through changes in the natural movement and water exchange of groundwater. In some cases, this can cause deviations in the hydrogeological regime - to change the levels, temperature background, chemical composition of groundwater, and also contribute to flooding of territories and construction sites.

     The application of the groundwater monitoring system is based on the organization of regular monitoring of the state of aquifers in order to timely identify deviations from the background (natural) indicators. This makes it possible to quickly make management decisions aimed at preventing pollution, as well as localizing potential sources of environmental impact.

     The key organizational and regulatory elements of such monitoring are: the development of an observation program, the correct choice of locations for observation wells, taking into account the direction of groundwater movement, compliance with the frequency and completeness of monitoring, conducting laboratory tests in accordance with approved methods.

     In accordance with the environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan, including the requirements of the Environmental Code, groundwater monitoring is included in industrial environmental control programs and is considered as an element of the system to ensure the best available techniques in the field of waste management. Its implementation complies with the principles of sustainable environmental management, ensures high standards of environmental protection and does not require significant capital expenditures or intervention in the main technological infrastructure of the facility.

4.4. Auxiliary operations in waste management

     According to the Environmental Code and other regulatory legal acts adopted in the Republic of Kazakhstan, all production and consumption waste must be collected, stored, neutralized, transported and buried, taking into account their impact on the environment.

     In order to prevent pollution of environmental components, the accumulation and disposal of waste is carried out in accordance with international standards and the current legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

     Ancillary operations are an integral part of the waste management system, these operations include waste sorting and treatment, as well as the use of appropriate tools and technologies to ensure safety, minimize environmental impacts and increase efficiency in waste recovery.

4.4.1. Reception and control of incoming waste

     Description

     Receiving and controlling incoming waste are the most important steps in the waste management process, ensuring safety, recycling efficiency and compliance with environmental standards. This process is aimed at ensuring that the waste entering the plant meets established standards and does not contain dangerous or prohibited components that may affect the safety and environmental friendliness of the plant.

     Technical description

At the first stage, waste is received from suppliers or from other sources. This process begins with the identification of documents that must accompany the waste, such as invoices and hazardous waste passports confirming their composition and origin. Weighing of waste. This allows you to assess in advance which waste is being recycled or prepare for its further recovery. When receiving waste at specialized collection points, a visual inspection of the contents of containers and packages is performed.

     Waste selection is the process of classifying waste based on various criteria, such as chemical composition, physical characteristics, and hazards to human health and the environment.

     The presence of radioactive sources or substances in the waste can lead to operational problems. Radiation monitoring of incoming waste is carried out using special dosimeters.

     A dosimeter is a device designed to measure the level of radioactive radiation.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Enhanced identification of unacceptable wastes, substances or properties can reduce operational loads and therefore avoid additional emissions.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     NDT is used in enterprises where waste of varying composition and origin comes from a wide variety of suppliers, as well as the risk of radioactive materials.

     Cross-media effects

     Missing.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It is generally applicable to types of activities and technological processes according to the scope of the BAT handbook.

     Economy

     Depending on the method used, the cost of the equipment is individual in each case.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Requirements of the environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

4.4.2. Preliminary waste treatment

     Description

     Pre-treatment of waste is a key step in the waste management process, which includes operations aimed at converting waste into a form suitable for further processing, disposal or safe disposal. This process may include various steps such as crushing, sorting, drying, pressing, sorting by type and characteristics.

     Technical description

     The preliminary preparation of waste begins with its arrival at the site, where the waste is sorted by type and degree of contamination. Sorting can be done manually or using automated systems such as conveyor belts with magnets for separating metal elements, separators for separating organic and inorganic materials, etc.

     The waste is then passed through shredders or presses, which reduce its volume and make it more convenient for subsequent processing or disposal. In the case of organic waste, a drying process may be used, and in the case of toxic or dangerous substances, chemical neutralization.

     The stages of pre-treatment depend on the type of waste and the technologies used in the enterprise.

     For example, magnetic separation can be used for waste containing metals, optical sorting can be used for plastics, and shredding and composting can be used for biological waste. It is important that the entire waste treatment process is precisely calibrated to maximize the recovery of valuable materials and minimize environmental pollution.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Pre-treatment of waste contributes to a significant reduction in the volume of waste sent to landfills, which helps reduce the burden on landfills. The sorting and recycling process allows you to extract valuable materials that can be reused, reducing the need for new resources. It also helps to minimize emissions of harmful substances into the environment, increasing ecosystem resilience and reducing air, water and soil pollution.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     Environmental indicators include the amount of recycled materials, a reduction in the amount of waste sent to burial, as well as a reduction in environmental pollution.

     Cross-media effects

     The process of pre-treatment of waste has both positive and negative cross-media effects. For example, crushing and compacting waste leads to increased energy consumption, but at the same time reduces the amount of waste that requires transportation or burial. Sorting of materials can lead to the formation of dust or emissions into the atmosphere, however, it also helps to improve the quality of recycled materials, which can reduce the burden on other components of the ecosystem.

     Technical considerations related to applicability

     It is generally applicable to types of activities and technological processes according to the scope of the BAT handbook.

     Pre-treatment of waste is an important part in all waste treatment plants, from small to large facilities. Its successful implementation requires high-quality equipment, precise adherence to technological processes and qualified personnel to manage equipment and technological parameters.

     Economy

     Depending on the method used, the cost of the equipment is individual in each case.

     The costs of pre-treatment of waste include the costs of equipment (e.g. shredders, sorting systems, pressing equipment), energy consumption, labor costs, as well as the cost of materials used to improve the process (e.g. chemicals to neutralize toxic substances).

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Requirements of the environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

4.5. Water management

     Description

     The organization of the water use system is an integral stage necessary for the formation of an enterprise's environmental policy, while it is necessary to take into account the processes available at the enterprise, the quality and availability of the source water consumed, the volume of consumption, climatic conditions, the availability and expediency of using certain technologies, the requirements of legislation in the field of environmental protection and industrial safety, as well as others relevant aspects.

     Reducing the consumption of water taken from external sources is the main goal of the water management system, the performance indicators of which are data on specific and gross water consumption at the enterprise.

     Technical description

     BAT for water resource management is to reduce water consumption, prevent, collect and separate wastewater types, maximizing internal recycling and using adequate treatment for each end stream.

     The main methods used include:

     implementation of a system of recycled water supply and reuse of water in the technological process;

     refusal to use drinking water for production lines;

     increasing the number and/or capacity of recycled water supply systems during the construction of new plants or modernization/reconstruction of existing plants;

     centralized distribution of incoming fresh water;

     reuse of water until individual parameters reach certain limits.;

     use of water in other installations, if only certain water parameters are affected and further use is possible.;

     separation of treated and untreated wastewater, using stormwater whenever possible;

     If possible, take early measures to monitor the quality of water discharged from storage and mixing areas, if such effluents are located near residential areas.;

     the use of local wastewater treatment and neutralization systems.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Reducing water consumption and improving environmental performance.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     The use of technologies aimed at preventing pollution of a water basin and minimizing water consumption: accounting for water consumption and sanitation, the use of local circulating cycles, the use of circulating water supply, the use of closed water circulation systems.

     Cross-media effects

     Reducing the consumption of primary water resources.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It is generally applicable to types of activities and technological processes according to the scope of the BAT handbook.

     In existing waste recovery facilities, the existing configuration of the water management system may limit applicability.

     Economy

     Depending on the method used in each specific case.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Reducing water consumption and improving environmental performance.

4.5.1. Handling of reverse osmosis plant concentrate

     As part of measures to improve water use efficiency, industrial enterprises are increasingly using water reuse technologies, including reverse osmosis systems and other wastewater treatment methods. Despite the unconditional environmental and resource-saving advantages of such solutions, it should be borne in mind that during the operation of membrane and osmotic installations, a by-product is formed - concentrate, which is a highly mineralized solution, in some cases classified as industrial waste.

Taking into account the requirements of environmental legislation and the principles of the best available techniques, the handling of such concentrate should be properly organized. This involves consideration and implementation of technological solutions aimed at its disposal, recycling, re-involvement in the production cycle or safe destruction. The following are possible approaches and technical methods for handling the resulting concentrate.

4.5.1.1. Secondary use of salt concentrate in brine cooling systems

     Description

     This measure provides for the reuse of concentrated saline solution formed in reverse osmosis plants or other membrane water treatment technologies as a coolant in brine cooling systems. In industrial environments where temperature control of technological flows is required, salt concentrates can be effectively used instead of fresh or chemically treated water, reducing the burden on water consumption and waste generation.

     Technical description

     The salt concentrate coming from the reverse osmosis plant is accumulated in tanks and after pre-filtration, and if necessary, it is stabilized by corrosion inhibitors and sent to the brine cooling system. The concentrate circulates in a closed loop, providing heat removal from equipment where heat exchange does not require the use of high-quality water. Such systems typically include pumps, heat exchangers, tanks, and pipelines that are resistant to corrosion.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Among the environmental benefits achieved, there is a significant reduction in water intake from natural sources - up to 10-15% of the total volume, due to the use of concentrate instead of fresh water. At the same time, the volume of waste generation (salt-containing concentrate) is reduced by 70-90%, which reduces the load on wastewater treatment plants and eliminates the discharge of pollutants into water bodies. The reuse of concentrate also increases the degree of closure of the water cycle.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     Using concentrate instead of recycling has a positive effect on other environments: there is no discharge into water bodies, and the amount of pollutants entering the environment is reduced. At the same time, a potential side effect may be an increase in energy consumption associated with the circulation of the cooling solution, as well as the need for regular monitoring of the equipment due to the increased aggressiveness of the salt medium.

     Cross-media effects

     From the point of view of applicability, the technology is suitable for industries with a developed water circulation infrastructure, where it is possible to introduce or adapt brine cooling systems. It can be implemented at both new and existing facilities. The main technical conditions are the availability of appropriate equipment and compliance with the requirements for materials in contact with saline solution.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     Among the environmental benefits achieved, there is a significant reduction in water intake from natural sources - up to 10-15% of the total volume, due to the use of concentrate instead of fresh water. At the same time, the volume of waste generation (salt-containing concentrate) is reduced by 70-90%, which reduces the load on wastewater treatment plants and eliminates the discharge of pollutants into water bodies. The reuse of concentrate also increases the degree of closure of the water circulation, which meets the environmental requirements and principles of BAT.

     Economy

     Depending on the equipment used in each specific case.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Reducing water consumption and improving environmental performance.

4.5.1.2. Production of secondary raw materials - dry salts from water treatment concentrate

     Description

     One of the rational approaches to handling concentrates formed during water treatment (in particular, reverse osmosis) is to obtain a secondary product from them - dry technical salts. This technology allows not only to reduce waste generation, but also to obtain products in demand in various industries, for example, in the road construction, chemical and metallurgical industries.

     Technical description

     The process is based on evaporation or drying of the concentrate in order to isolate salts in the solid phase. For this purpose, vacuum evaporation plants, solar or thermal evaporation sites, or industrial equipment with forced evaporation of moisture can be used. Depending on the scheme used, the resulting dry salts can be additionally cleaned and packaged. The main product is industrial salt (sodium chloride, sulfates and other compounds), suitable for use as an anti-icing material for the maintenance of highways in winter, as well as for some technological processes.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     The environmental effect of this measure is expressed in the almost complete elimination of the need to dispose of salt concentrate as waste. The load on sewage treatment plants is reduced, pollution of water bodies is prevented and the need for primary salt extraction is reduced, which is important for the protection of natural resources. The disposal of concentrate in the form of a product eliminates the discharge of saline effluents into the environment and contributes to the implementation of the principle of a closed production cycle.

     Cross-media effects

     Elimination of water emissions, absence of soil and water pollution, as well as reduction of the total amount of waste. At the same time, the energy costs of the evaporation process should be taken into account, as well as possible emissions into the atmosphere from the thermal evaporation method - they require appropriate control and compensation through energy-efficient solutions.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     The technology is applicable in enterprises with sufficient concentrate volume and processing capabilities. It is especially effective in regions with high solar activity, where passive evaporation methods can be used, or in enterprises where there is excess heat that can be used as an energy source for evaporation. The resulting product can be sold or used internally, which reduces the cost of purchasing similar materials.

     Economy

     Depending on the equipment used in each specific case.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Reducing water consumption and improving environmental performance.

4.6. Reduction of physical impact levels

     Noise, being a general biological irritant, affects not only the auditory analyzer, but also affects the structures of the brain, causing changes in various functional systems of the body. Among the numerous manifestations of the adverse effects of noise on the human body, there are: decreased speech intelligibility, unpleasant sensations, the development of fatigue and decreased productivity, the appearance of noise pathology.

     There is currently some information available on the causes and approaches to prevent and minimize noise and vibration. The effect of noise on operators inside the installation is not considered in this document.

     New installations can be characterized by low noise and vibration levels. Proper maintenance helps to prevent equipment from unbalancing (fans, pumps). The connections between the equipment can be specially designed to prevent or minimize noise transmission.

     In order to reduce the noise level and prevent its spread to the nearest area, various technical solutions for noise reduction can be applied.:

     implementing a noise reduction strategy;

     fencing of "noisy" operations/units;

     vibration isolation of operations/units;

     inner and outer skin made of shock-absorbing material;

     sound insulation of buildings to protect against any "noisy" operations related to material conversion equipment;

     the construction of walls to protect against noise, for example, the construction of buildings or natural barriers such as growing trees and shrubs between a protected area and "noisy" activities (or "noise-producing activities");

     cladding of air ducts and blowers located in soundproof buildings;

     closing of doors and windows of indoor premises;

     low-noise equipment, this includes low-noise compressors, pumps.

     The listed measures are available for use at existing, upgraded and new facilities. If the above-mentioned technical solutions cannot be applied and if noise-emitting installations cannot be converted to separate buildings, secondary technical solutions are used, such as, for example, the construction of buildings or natural barriers such as growing trees and shrubs between the residential area and the source of active noise. The doors and windows of the protected space must be tightly closed during the operation of noise-emitting installations.

     Vibration is the mechanical oscillatory motion of a system with elastic bonds. Vibration by the method of transmission to humans (depending on the nature of contact with vibration sources) is conventionally divided into local (local), transmitted to the hands of the worker, and general, transmitted through the supporting surfaces to the human body, in a sitting or standing position.

     General vibration in the practice of hygienic rationing is referred to as workplace vibration. In industrial environments, there is often a combined effect of local and general vibration.

The most effective means of protecting a person from vibration is to eliminate direct contact with vibrating equipment. This is done through the use of remote control, industrial robots, automation and replacement of technological operations.

     Reducing the adverse effect of vibration of manual mechanized tools on the operator is achieved through technical solutions:

     reduction of vibration intensity directly at the source (due to design improvements);

     external vibration protection devices, which are elastic damping materials and devices placed between the vibration source and the hands of the human operator;

     vibration isolation of production facilities/units.

4.7. The smell

     It is important to solve the problem in a complex and carry out measures to remove foul-smelling substances not only at waste recovery facilities, but also at the stages of their formation, collection and transportation.

     Measures aimed at preventing the formation and spread of odors include:

     proper waste management and management;

     Careful design, operation, and maintenance of equipment that may emit odors.;

     proper removal and purification of air from gaseous emissions;

     The use of airtight containers for storing waste until it is processed or disposed of in order to prevent the spread of odors into the environment.;

     the use of biofilters for the effective removal of odor-forming substances.

     Reducing the formation of odors during the collection and treatment of wastewater and sewage sludge can be achieved by:

     the use of chemical reagents to eliminate or reduce the formation of odorous substances (for example, oxidation or precipitation of hydrogen sulfide);

     coatings or fences of wastewater and precipitation collection and treatment facilities to capture and direct odorous gases for subsequent treatment;

     applications of "end-of-life" technologies for cleaning emissions and discharges outside the main technological process (for example, biochemical treatment, high-temperature oxidation, filtration through biofilters).

     The implementation of the above measures will increase the level of sanitary and hygienic safety, improve the quality of life of the population and reduce the negative impact on the environment.

5. Techniques that are considered when choosing the best available techniques

     This section of the BAT handbook provides a description of existing techniques for a specific application that are proposed for consideration in order to determine BAT.

     When describing the techniques, the assessment of the benefits of introducing NDT for the environment is taken into account, data on the limitations in the use of NDT, economic indicators characterizing NDT, as well as other information relevant for the practical application of NDT are provided.

     The main objective of the methods described in this section is to achieve minimum levels of emissions, discharges, and waste generation using one or more techniques in order to comprehensively prevent environmental pollution.

5.1. BAT aimed at the implementation of automated control and management systems in the technological process of waste recovery

5.1.1. Implementation of automated systems for fire detection and prevention

     Description

     The introduction of automated fire safety systems at waste recovery and recycling facilities is an important measure to improve industrial and environmental safety. These systems provide early detection of fires, localization of fire sources, protection of critical areas of equipment and prevention of accidental emissions of pollutants into the environment.

     Technical description

     The system includes temperature, smoke and flame sensors, automatic warning, extinguishing and ventilation systems. Depending on the category of premises and the nature of the waste, gas, powder, water or aerosol extinguishing is used. Automated algorithms ensure that the fuel supply, power supply and equipment stop to prevent the spread of fire.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Automated systems prevent uncontrolled emissions from igniting waste, including toxic organic compounds, dioxins, and heavy metals. The risk of destruction of installations and leakage of pollutants into the soil and reservoirs is reduced.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     The use of the systems allows:

     reduce the risk of fires and explosions by 80 - 90 %;

     minimize unauthorized emissions of pollutants;

     to ensure the continuity of the technological process of waste recovery;

     reduce emergency downtime and remediation costs.

     Cross-media effects

     Fire extinguishing systems prevent pollutants from entering the air, water and soil, and optimized extinguishing technologies reduce water consumption and the formation of polluted wastewater.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     The systems are applicable to all waste recovery plants (mechanical, chemical, biological processing) where combustible raw materials or equipment with increased fire risks are used.

     Economy

     Capital expenditures - 30 - 150 million tenge. The economic effect is manifested in preventing major accidents, reducing downtime and penalties.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Legal requirements for industrial safety, the development of "green" technologies and the need to reduce emergency risks.

5.1.2. Application of automated process control systems (automated control systems)

     Description

     The use of automated control systems in waste recovery plants (sorting, oil regeneration, polymer processing, biogas plants) is aimed at increasing the efficiency and stability of processes, reducing energy consumption and minimizing the negative impact on the environment.

     Technical description

     The automated control system includes control and measuring devices, controllers, visualization interfaces (HMI/SCADA) and specialized software. The system regulates the feed of raw materials, temperature, rotation speed of equipment, dosage of reagents and processes for cleaning emissions. Algorithms (PID controllers, adaptive and predictive models, neural network optimizers) ensure control accuracy and real-time data analysis.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Automation makes it possible to reduce the amount of poorly processed waste, reduce emissions of pollutants, and reduce the formation of contaminated wastewater. The efficiency of recovery of secondary resources increases and the total volume of waste sent to burial is reduced.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     The use of automated control systems provides:

     reduction of specific energy consumption by 5 - 15 %;

     Reduction of CO and NOₓ emissions by 10-20 %;

     increasing the degree of waste recovery to 90 - 95 %;

     reduction of the volume of waste to be disposed of by 20-30 %;

     increasing the utilization rate of secondary resources.

     Cross-media effects

     The positive impact is expressed in reducing the formation of non-recyclable waste, reducing energy consumption, reducing wastewater and preventing accidental emissions.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     Automated control systems are applicable both at new waste processing facilities and during the modernization of existing production facilities. They are effective in oil regeneration plants, plastics processing, composting, biogas complexes, and mechanical and biological treatment systems.

     Economy

     Investments amount to 40-200 million tenge, the payback period is 2 to 5 years due to energy savings, increased recycling output and lower fees for waste disposal.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Legislative requirements for waste management, increased tariffs for burial, transition to a "Green economy", digitalization of industrial processes.

5.2. BAT, in the field of energy and resource conservation

5.2.1. Using heat recovery

     Description

     The use of heat recovery in waste recovery is the introduction of technical solutions aimed at the reuse of thermal energy released during waste treatment. This can be heat generated during thermal, mechanical, thermal or chemical processing, as well as during the operation of technological equipment. The goal is to maximize energy output from processes and minimize losses, while reducing overall primary energy consumption.

     Technical description

     The technology uses heat recuperators, heat exchangers, heat exchangers, and closed heat supply circuits that transfer heat from hot streams (flue gases, heat carriers, and working media) to consumers inside the enterprise, for example, for heating raw materials, heating water, heating rooms, or generating steam. Integration with cogeneration plants and energy storage systems is possible. In some cases, a cascade heat exchange system with temperature gradation is used.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Due to heat recovery, the need to use external energy sources (electricity, natural gas, fuel oil) is reduced, which leads to a reduction in emissions of co₂, noₓ and other pollutants associated with energy production. In addition, the thermal load on the environment is reduced by reducing the discharge of residual heat.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

The introduction of a recovery system can help reduce overall fuel consumption, which has a positive effect on atmospheric air, reducing emissions. The thermal effect on water bodies is also reduced if heated wastewater is not discharged. There are no significant negative Cross-media effects. Technology contributes to comprehensive environmental improvement.

     It is important to note that this technique is applicable in the presence of appropriate climatic and technical and economic conditions and is impractical in arid climatic zones, where the use of heat for heating or heating process flows has limited efficiency.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     The technology is particularly effective for significant amounts of excess heat typical of thermal or high-temperature processes. The application requires a preliminary thermal audit and selection of equipment, taking into account the operating modes of the enterprise. A sufficient level of automation and integration into existing engineering networks is required.

     At the Amager Bakke Waste-to-Energy Plant in Copenhagen (Denmark), the heat generated from the incineration of unsorted waste is sent to the district heating system, covering the needs of about 150,000 households. In Finland, at the Westenergy Oy Ab plant in Vaasa, waste heat is recovered into steam, which is used both to generate electricity and to heat urban areas, providing an efficiency of over 90%. In South Korea, at the Incheon Sudokwon RDF Facility, heat from the RDF pyrolysis and combustion process is used to heat administrative and industrial premises, as well as to preheat raw materials.

     Economy

     Initial investments include the purchase of heat exchange equipment, automation and installation systems. However, with high energy tariffs and significant thermal potential, the payback period may be 3-5 years. Savings are achieved by reducing the cost of heating, steam generation or heating of raw materials.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Rising energy tariffs, stricter emission requirements, the need to optimize production costs and sustainable development make heat recovery economically and environmentally feasible. Additional incentives include corporate ESG strategies and decarbonization programs.

5.2.2. Application of variable frequency drives and energy-efficient compressors

     Description

     Compressors, fans, and pumps are widely used in the systems involved in the waste recovery process, from sorting and crushing to air supply, transportation of secondary raw materials and gases. Their operation is usually associated with a variable load, and in such conditions, the use of variable frequency drives (VFDs), as well as energy-efficient compressors, can significantly reduce energy consumption, improve the stability of equipment and extend its service life.

     Technical description

     The technology includes the installation of VFD on electric motors of compressors, fans and pumps, which allows you to adjust the rotation speed in accordance with the current production load. Energy-efficient compressors, in turn, have advanced cooling schemes, highly efficient electric motors (IE3 and higher), optimized compression geometry and control systems that reduce energy consumption while maintaining the required operating parameters.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Reducing electricity consumption leads to a reduction in indirect emissions of greenhouse gases (CO₂) and other pollutants associated with electricity generation. In addition, the thermal load on the room where the equipment is located is reduced, as well as the noise and vibration levels, which improves working conditions.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     The use of VFD and modern compressors makes it possible to achieve a reduction in energy consumption from 15% to 40% compared with traditional constant-speed systems. The average payback period ranges from 2 to 5 years, depending on the loading mode of the equipment. The level of reduction of CO2 emissions is up to 200-300 kg for every 1000 kWh saved.

     Cross-media effects

     The technology has a positive impact on the environment, reducing electricity consumption and, consequently, the load on electric power resources. Reducing noise and vibration impacts has a positive effect on sanitary working conditions. There are no significant negative Cross-media effects.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It is most advisable to implement compressors, pumps and fans in facilities with variable loads, especially during continuous or cyclic operation. To optimize the process, it is necessary to have an automation system and correct control settings. In older installations, adaptation of power supply and ventilation systems will be required.

     The use of variable frequency drives (VFDs) and energy-efficient compressors in waste recovery plants can significantly reduce the energy consumption of equipment operating in variable modes. At the Attero Waste Treatment Facility in Moordijk (the Netherlands), the introduction of CHP on fans and pumps, as well as the replacement of compressors with variable-speed models, reduced electricity consumption by 20%. In Japan, at the Fukuoka Clean Center, the installation of highly efficient compressors and VFDs in air supply systems for drying and gas purification provided energy savings of up to 25% without reducing productivity.

     Economy

     Investments in the installation of CHP and replacement of compressors with energy-efficient ones vary depending on the capacity of the equipment. At the same time, savings on electricity payments can reach 20-30% of the cost of energy supply to compressor stations or ventilation equipment. Government programs to support energy efficiency and compensate for part of the cost of modernization can further increase the profitability of the project.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     The main factors are the increase in electricity tariffs, the need to reduce production costs, corporate goals to reduce the carbon footprint, as well as the desire to increase reliability and automation of processes. An additional incentive is the opportunity to receive government support for the implementation of energy saving projects.

5.2.3. Use of secondary energy resources

     Description

     Secondary energy resources are heat, gas, or other types of energy generated as by-products of technological processes that can be reused within an enterprise or transferred to other facilities. In the context of waste recovery, this is usually the utilization of heat from operating equipment, the use of process gases (for example, pyrolysis or gasification), as well as the use of residual steam or compressed air pressure.

     Technical description

     At waste recovery facilities, secondary energy resources can be formed during pyrolysis, gasification, mechanical processing, as well as during equipment cooling and air compression. The technologies used include heat exchangers for heat recovery, pyrolysis gas recovery systems with subsequent combustion in boilers, as well as reuse of spent steam in the heating networks of the enterprise. The resulting energy can be used to heat air, water, supply to drying plants, heat rooms, or generate electricity.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Reducing the consumption of primary energy resources (natural gas, electricity, fuel oil) leads to a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide and other pollutants associated with their combustion. Heat utilization also reduces thermal pollution of the environment, which is especially important for urbanized areas.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     The introduction of the use of secondary energy resources makes it possible to reduce total energy consumption by 10-30%, depending on the technological process. The potential reduction of CO2 emissions can reach 0.2 - 0.5 tons for every 1 ton of recycled secondary energy resources. The operating costs of recycling systems are usually low after initial capital investment, and the payback period is 2 to 4 years.

     Cross-media effects

     The introduction of this technology reduces the load on the energy infrastructure of the enterprise, reduces the amount of fuel resources consumed and thus has a comprehensive positive impact on the environment. A possible increase in the concentration of certain pollutants at the sites of pyrogas re-combustion is compensated by the purification and automatic control system.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     The technique is applicable at facilities where excess heat or process gases are generated during the processing process. In enterprises with unstable operating conditions, it may be necessary to install buffer tanks or energy storage systems. It is also important to consider the feasibility of recycling, especially with small amounts of secondary energy resources.

     At the Zistersdorf Mechanical-Biological Treatment Plant in Austria, the heat generated during composting and drying of waste is directed to heating buildings and preheating raw materials. In Germany, at the München Nord Heizkraftwerk facility, the secondary steam produced during waste processing is used to drive turbo generators and supply heat to the system. In Japan, at the Kita Incineration Plant in Osaka, by-product heat and hot water from waste disposal are reused to heat public buildings and the swimming pool at the plant.

     Economy

The costs of installing recycling and reuse systems for secondary energy resources depend on the type of equipment and configuration of the enterprise. However, due to lower energy costs, the technology demonstrates high profitability. The use of secondary energy resources makes it possible to reduce energy costs by 15-25%, which makes it especially attractive in the face of rising tariffs.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     The main factors are the desire to increase energy efficiency, reduce energy costs, meet corporate and government requirements to reduce the carbon footprint, as well as the availability of international standards in the field of sustainable production and "green" transformation.

5.3 BAT aimed at preventing and reducing unorganized emissions

5.3.1. Minimizing the number of potential unorganized emission sources

     Description

     Within the framework of the environmental management system (EMS), enterprises can take both design and operational measures aimed at preventing or reducing unorganized emissions into the atmosphere. The main purpose of such measures is to reduce the risk of uncontrolled air pollution, improve working conditions and minimize environmental impacts.

     Technical description

     Several operational and design measures can be selected based on the expected type of emissions.:

     Reducing the number of potential sources of emissions

     Design solutions include reducing the length of pipelines, reducing the number of flange connections and shut-off valves, which reduces the likelihood of leaks. The use of welded fittings and pipes further reduces the number of joints. Wherever possible, gravity systems are preferred instead of pumping systems, which simplifies the technology and reduces the risk of equipment failures.

     Selection of equipment with a high degree of reliability and tightness

     Modern double-sealed valves and sealed gaskets (spiral wound, kammprofile, ring connections) minimize the risk of unorganized emissions. Pumps and compressors with magnetic drive or mechanical seals provide increased operational reliability. The use of specialized service hoses and safe degassing systems ensures leak control at all stages.

     Corrosion prevention

     The choice of materials, taking into account the aggressive properties of the transported substances, reduces the likelihood of damage to pipelines. Additionally, linings, coatings, and corrosion inhibitors are used. External protection is provided by painting metal structures, which prevents external corrosion and prolongs the service life of the equipment.

     Containment and collection of scattered emissions

     An important area is the storage of waste and raw materials in enclosed spaces or sealed containers. Local exhaust systems with filters, including carbon filters, are used to capture dust. Additionally, dust suppression systems (irrigation, fog guns) are used. Conveyor belts are sealed, and reloading units are covered. Wind shields and fences reduce the transfer of pollutants by the wind.

     Waste storage and management

     The organization of storage under canopies or in airtight containers prevents dust dispersion. To minimize secondary emissions, it is recommended to limit the height of the stored piles, install ventilation of storage rooms with air purification, and humidify dusty materials. Controlling traffic flows, including reducing truck speeds, also reduces dust generation.

     Mixing of waste

     To reduce air emissions, the use of pulverized reagents is eliminated, and closed feeding and mixing systems are preferred. Screw feeders and pneumatic conveying systems can significantly reduce particle dispersion.

     Support and cleaning

     Regular monitoring of the tightness of the equipment allows you to identify potential leaks at an early stage. Waste storage and transportation areas are cleaned with industrial vacuum cleaners. Washing the driveways and wheels of trucks, as well as regular washing of equipment, prevent secondary dust formation.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     An integrated approach makes it possible to significantly reduce the level of unorganized emissions, minimize the impact on the health of workers and the surrounding population, and reduce social tension by reducing the number of complaints from local communities.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     Efficiency is achieved by connecting ventilation systems to air purification plants, using fume hoods and filters to capture dust, as well as monitoring the tightness of waste storage and transportation systems.

     Cross-media effects

     Some measures lead to additional resource costs. For example, dust suppression systems require additional water consumption, and sealing processes reduces not only emissions, but also noise levels.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     Not all measures are universal and applicable to all types of production. At existing facilities, the introduction of hermetic equipment may be limited by design features. When using closed systems, there is a risk of accumulation of explosive mixtures or a decrease in oxygen concentration, which requires additional safety measures.

     Economy

     The cost of implementation depends on the specifics of production, the technologies used and the scale of the enterprise. Some measures (such as switching to sealed pumps) require significant investments, but they pay off by reducing raw material losses, reducing emergencies, and reducing the cost of eliminating emissions.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Requirements of the environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

5.3.2. Leak Detection and Repair Program

     Description

     The Leak Detection and Repair Program is a systematic set of measures aimed at identifying, assessing and eliminating unorganized emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and other pollutants that occur during the operation of industrial installations. The main goal of the program is the timely detection of leaks and the prevention of their further spread into the atmosphere, which allows not only to reduce the impact on the environment, but also to increase the level of industrial safety, as well as optimize technological processes.

     Technical description

     The OIRU program includes a set of technical and organizational measures. The first stage involves the identification and, if necessary, quantification of significant unorganized emissions that may occur from various technological nodes and equipment. For this purpose, both traditional direct monitoring methods (for example, the use of portable organic vapor analyzers) and modern optical gas imaging technologies are used, allowing for more efficient inspection of large objects.

     In addition to monitoring equipment (valves, pumps, compressors, filters, etc.), the program provides for the replacement or modernization of structural elements to improve their tightness. For example, new sealing materials, sealed lids, and specialized waste storage systems are used. An important aspect is the organization of proper handling of filtration materials, washing waters and other potential sources of emissions: all of them should be stored in closed tanks or sealed containers, which eliminates their uncontrolled release.

     The program also relies on preventive measures such as regular maintenance, timely replacement of seals, scheduled tank cleaning and equipment for degassing systems. Thus, the OIRU is not only reactive, but also preventive in nature.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     The implementation of the program makes it possible to significantly reduce emissions of VOCs and other harmful substances from technological equipment, reduce air pollution, improve sanitary and hygienic working conditions and minimize the risk of exposure to the health of personnel and the public. As a result, the number of complaints from local communities is also decreasing and the level of trust in the company is increasing.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     The main performance indicators are the frequency of leak detection and elimination, the amount of emissions prevented, and the speed of incident response. Additionally, the number of components covered by monitoring (valves, pumps, connections, etc.) and the proportion of equipment that has been serviced under the program are recorded.

     Cross-media effects

     The program has virtually no negative cross-media effects. In some cases, it is possible to increase the volume of washing water, but their storage and disposal is carried out in sealed containers, which eliminates secondary contamination.

     Technical considerations related to applicability

     The OIRU program is used primarily at enterprises working with volatile organic compounds (oil refineries and petrochemical plants, chemical industry). At the same time, simpler and less expensive methods can be used for small facilities, whereas for large-scale productions it is advisable to introduce modern optical gas imaging technologies. Limitations may include the high cost of equipment and the need to train personnel to carry out monitoring.

     Economy

     The implementation of the program requires certain capital investments and operating costs.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Requirements of the environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

5.4. Machinery for mechanical and physical waste treatment

Mechanical treatment is used for the following types of waste:

     medical and biological waste;

     hazardous waste;

     oil-containing waste;

     organic waste;

     waste of electrical and electronic equipment;

     solid industrial waste;

     liquid waste;

     other waste;

     mining and metallurgical waste;

     waste of plastic and rubber products;

     municipal waste;

     industrial and construction waste.

5.4.1. Impact of force fields (gravitational, centrifugal, electric, magnetic)

     Description

     Methods aimed at separation of solid, liquid and gaseous phases, removal of impurities or impurities are described. The methods make it possible to restore the operational properties of waste, prolonging its service life and reducing the environmental burden. The technologies are widely used in various industries, including mechanical engineering, energy, waste recycling, and so on.

     Technical description

     The gravity impact method is based on the difference in the densities of waste components, which allows them to be separated under the influence of gravity. The main examples of gravitational influence: settling of liquid waste to separate suspended particles and precipitation of solid particles in settling tanks.

     The most common types of equipment used include settling tanks, hydrocyclones, and separation tanks. The deposition rate depends on the particle density and the viscosity of the medium.

     The centrifugal action method is used to accelerate the separation of phases with different densities, for example, in the treatment of liquid waste to remove solid particles and water, wastewater treatment from oils and fats. The most common equipment is centrifuges (disk, sedimentation, separation) and rotary separators.

     The method of using an electric field is used to separate particles with different electrical conductivity or polarization, for example, during electroflotation or electrostatic separation of solid waste (for example, plastic and metals).

     Magnetic fields are used to extract ferromagnetic materials from waste, for example, when removing metal impurities from construction debris. The main types of installations include magnetic separators (permanent magnets, electromagnets), magnetic drums and conveyors.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     The methods make it possible to isolate useful components for reuse, reducing the amount of waste to be disposed of.

     The absence of chemicals minimizes the risk of secondary contamination. Effective removal of heavy metals and organic pollutants.

     Resource savings in the recycling of extracted materials (metals, oils).

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     Gravity methods require minimal energy consumption. Centrifugal and electric methods require more power (up to 10 kW/h). Centrifugal cleaning is the most effective and high-performance method of removing mechanical impurities and water from waste oil.

     Magnetic separators: practically do not require replacement, but require regular cleaning.

     It is necessary to regularly clean and check filters, rotors and electrodes, and replace worn components (for example, bearings in centrifuges).

     For example, centrifuges are used to separate oil pollution at the SIBUR plant (Russia), electric flotators are used for wastewater treatment at chemical industry enterprises at Veolia (France).

     Cross-media effects

     Increased energy consumption when using centrifugal and electric methods.

     Secondary waste is generated, which must be neutralized.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     Gravity methods are not suitable for fine particles (<1 micron). Also, the length of time is a limiting factor (for complete settling of particles).

     Electric and magnetic methods are effective only for certain types of waste.

     Centrifuges and electrostatic separators require significant capital investments. The complexity of the process of cleaning the centrifuge itself from mechanical impurities. The centrifuge also refers to difficult-to-operate devices that require manual settings, that is, the constant presence of the installation operator. Separation of oil-containing waste into fractions using centrifuges is possible for oil-containing waste with a mechanical impurity content of up to 15%.

     Methods using centrifugal and electric fields consume more energy than traditional mechanical methods.

     For high efficiency, preliminary crushing or homogenization of waste is necessary.

     Economy

     Depending on the method used in each specific case.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Requirements of the environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

5.4.2. Filtering

     Description

     Filtration is one of the stages of mechanical treatment of liquid waste, carried out using filters of various types.

     Technical description

     The process of removing particles of mechanical impurities and resinous compounds by passing oil through mesh or porous filter walls.

     Coarse filtration (removal of particles >10 microns) is used for the primary removal of large mechanical impurities. Fine filtration (removal of particles <5 microns) provides deeper cleaning.

     Applicable installations: mesh filters, filter elements made of metal, fabric or polymers, filter presses, self-cleaning filters.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     The use of filtration technologies in the treatment of oil-containing waste provides a significant environmental effect: the volume of hazardous waste and consumption of fresh petroleum products is reduced, pollution of soil and water bodies is prevented, the load on the atmosphere is reduced, water use is optimized and industrial safety is improved.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     Mechanical methods are ineffective against chemically related impurities such as oxidation products or dissolved salts.

     To improve filtration on a belt filter press, intensive mixing of oil-containing waste is carried out, averaging their composition, reagents (ash, polyelectrolytes, and others) are added, changing their physico-chemical properties and facilitating the filtration process.

     Cross-media effects

     Formation of waste requiring treatment and neutralization.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     Highly viscous oils require preheating, which increases energy consumption.

     If there is a high content of water or solid particles, the cleaning efficiency decreases, and the equipment may wear out faster.

     The use of filtration systems for oil regeneration is used at Total Lubricants (France), fine filtration systems for hydraulic oils at oil refineries at the Rosneft plant (Russia).

     Economy

     Depending on the method used in each specific case.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Requirements of the environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

5.4.3. Thermal desorption

     Description

     Waste treatment system at the thermal desorption plant.

     In the case of soils contaminated with hydrocarbons and/or other volatile components, pollutants can be used directly at the contamination site of a mobile decontamination system using direct thermal desorption of contamination from the material.

     Technical description

     The operating temperature is usually between 175 (800°C) and 370 (1900°C) degrees Fahrenheit, but can reach up to 340 °C or 650 degrees Fahrenheit. Thermal desorption involves the physical separation of components, rather than the combustion of treated material, and can be used in the restoration of soils contaminated with organic compounds that are resistant to biochemical decomposition or degradation, as well as with asphalt tar and other similar contaminants.

     The mobile thermal desorption station can be transported from one location to another by trucks.

     The plant is equipped with all the necessary subsystems in automatic and semi-automatic operations, providing soil purification and the supply of sludge contaminated with hydrocarbons.

     Soil decontamination includes the following operations:

     nutrition (dosage) of the solid fraction in the desorber;

     desorption of hydrocarbons in the counterflow. Maximum gas temperature 450 °C;

     cooling of the treated fraction of solids;

     dust separation in a cyclone;

     oxidation of hydrocarbons at a temperature of 850 °C.;

     gas cooling below 160 °C for filter bags;

     filtration of hot gas. Control of gas purification parameters in a periodic mode.

     Before being placed in a thermal desorption plant, the contaminated soil material is pretreated: pH, humidity adjustment, crushing and homogenization (sieving). For optimal operation of the thermal desorption unit, an average of 15% humidity and 5% content of hydrocarbon components in the treated material is required. The soil material, previously prepared for decontamination, must be stored in sufficient volume at the temporary placement site for uninterrupted supply to the automatic thermal desorption unit.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     The process of thermal desorption involves the release of pollutants by thermal heating without combustion, which reduces the formation of greenhouse gases directly from the decontamination process.Gorenje The process allows for the restoration of soil from hazardous waste, reduces the amount of waste sent to burial, and reduces the cost of reclamation.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     Temperature range: depending on the type of waste and the purpose of treatment, it must be maintained above 100 ° C. Installation of filters for cleaning gases and liquids is required.

     Cross-media effects

     Energy consumption.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It is applicable in places polluted by petroleum products and their homologues, i.e. substances belonging to the same class, similar in composition, structure and properties.

     The technology is widespread in industrial installations in the EU (Romania, Czech Republic).

     Economy

     Reduction of remediation costs.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Requirements of environmental legislation.

5.4.4. Thermomechanical phase separation

     Description

     Extraction of the hydrocarbon fraction from oil-containing waste. The method is based on the separation of oil-containing waste into phases: hydrocarbon, aqueous, and solid residue.

     Technical description

     In a thermomechanical treatment plant for oil-containing waste, a temperature increase above the boiling point of water and petroleum products that make up the waste is achieved by mechanical action. The main part of the technological unit of the installation is a mill, where intensive (at high speed) mixing of oil-containing waste takes place with the release of heat due to friction forces. All large particles are ground into dust, and the resulting heat is used to evaporate oil and water from oil-containing waste. Fine sludge particles entrained by oil and water vapors are trapped in a hydrocyclone and transferred to the primary cooling conveyor. The operation of the condenser unit provides for: supply of cooling process water, discharge of extracted water into a reservoir, discharge of extracted oil into an oil recovery tank, discharge of heated water for cooling into an air cooling unit, supply of water to an additional purification unit, discharge of volatile fractions, supply of recovered oil into a container.

     A volatile gas afterburning system at a temperature of 700-800 °C for 1-2 seconds is used to remove a small residue of non-condensable gas (light fractions of hydrocarbons).

     In order to avoid spraying, the recycled sludge is cooled and moistened in a rehydration unit, after which it is discharged into a hopper. The final products of the process are extracted oil and mineral residue (cake). The secondary product is purified soil, which can be used for reclamation, as well as for construction purposes, including in the form of road deposits.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Allocation of secondary resources (metals, plastics, organics) reduces the need for extraction of primary materials, reduces the volume of waste sent to burial by up to 70%.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     Temperature range: 100 - 300 °C, depending on the type of waste and the purpose of treatment. Installation of filters for cleaning gases and liquids is required.

     Cross-media effects

     Formation of waste requiring treatment and neutralization.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     The high moisture content of the waste can reduce efficiency. Pre-sorting is required to eliminate hazardous waste (batteries, mercury lamps).

     In Germany and Austria, thermomechanical separation of waste into phases is used for the treatment of solid household waste in order to isolate metals, plastics and organic fractions.

     The waste recycling plant in Vienna (Austria) uses thermomechanical processes to separate mixed household waste into different fractions, which makes it possible to efficiently recycle and dispose of materials. The same approach is used at the waste recycling plant in Ljubljana (Slovenia), where thermomechanical separation is used to treat solid household waste with a high degree of recovery of secondary resources.

     Economy

     Sale of secondary resources. Reducing the cost of burial.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Requirements of the environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

5.4.5. Barodestructive technology of rubber products that have lost their consumer properties, including rubber tires, tires and chambers

     Description

     The barodestructive technology of waste disposal of rubber products is based on the phenomenon of "pseudo-liquefaction" of rubber at high pressures. During this process, the available metal and side rings are separated from the main rubber mass, which is sent for further crushing and separation.

     Technical description

     The main stages of waste disposal of rubber products that have lost their consumer properties, including rubber tires, tires and chambers, include: cutting and pressing, processing on high-pressure units, final cleaning and production of a marketable product.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     95% of recycled tires are converted into useful products: carbon black, pyrolysis oil and metal.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     At the final cleaning stage, the rubber mass is sent for final cleaning from the metal cord; the rubber mass released from the metal cord is fed into an impact crusher for crushing. In the cord separator, the rubber is separated from the textile cord and the rubber crumb is divided into fractions.

     Currently, 2 processing plants have been implemented and are successfully operating: Astor (Perm), Leninogorsk Processing Plant (Leninogorsk, Tatarstan).

     Cross-media effects

     Waste disposal of rubber products is accompanied by dust emissions from crushers and grinders, the formation of waste metal cord and textile cord.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     Applicable to rubber products that have lost their consumer properties, including rubber tires, tires and chambers.

     Economy

     Sale of secondary resources.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Requirements of the environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

5.4.6. Grinding

     Description

     Shredding processes are widespread in solid waste recycling technology and are an important stage in preparing waste for further recovery, including alternative fuel (RDF) production, material recycling, and mechanical sorting.

     Technical description

     Crushing and splitting are used to crush waste, and the following methods are used to crush waste: crushing, splitting, grinding, cutting, sawing, abrasion, and various combinations thereof. Depending on the method of exposure, the following types of equipment are distinguished:

     shredders of splitting and breaking action;

     jaw, cone, and tooth crushers;

     crushing grinders - smooth-rolling crushers, roller-ring, vertical and horizontal mills;

     shredders of abrasion-crushing action - runners, ball-ring, bead mills and others;

     impact grinders - hammer, bilge, shaft mills, disintegrators, centrifugal, gas jet mills;

     impact-abrasion and piercing - vibration, planetary, vibration-gravity mills;

     others (punches, saws, and others).

     Grinding methods are also classified according to the temperature regime (low-temperature and normal grinding) and the mechanical principle of impact (impact, compression, shear, cutting, abrasion, etc.).

     For example, crushing plastics produces crumbs and powders suitable for subsequent injection molding. Electrical and electronic equipment is crushed, after which metals are extracted by magnetic separation. Car batteries also go through the stage of grinding the housings before separating the active components.

     One of the key applications of crushing is the preparation of fractions for the production of RDF fuel (Refuse Derived Fuel), which is obtained from unsorted MSW residues and industrial waste that are not recyclable but have a high calorific value. RDF is formed from pre-sorted waste by crushing, dewatering, and pressing it. RDF is used as a replacement fuel in cement plants, thermal power plants and other industrial facilities.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     The intensity and efficiency of most chemical, physico-chemical, and biochemical processes increases with decreasing sizes of pieces (grains) of recyclable materials.

     One of the methods of solid household waste disposal is the production of solid fuels. Solid RDF fuel from solid household waste is used as a complete or partial replacement for the main type of fuel, for example, for the cement industry, in power plants.

     Solid RDF fuel from solid household waste is obtained by crushing, separating and dewatering pre-sorted waste. Solid RDF fuel can be used in a crushed state or in the form of compressed briquettes.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     Grinding requires additional energy consumption, accompanied by noise and vibration. Side effects include the formation of dust, emissions of organic compounds (for example, during the processing of plastics), sewage pollution in the case of "wet" grinding.

     Cross-media effects

     Physical methods of polymer waste disposal are accompanied by the formation of dust emissions and polluted wastewater.

     For example, polymer dust is released during the grinding or crushing of plastic products to produce fine-grained flakes. During the operation of extruders and injection molding machines, carbon monoxide and a mixture of extreme hydrocarbons are released into the atmospheric air.

     Wastewater in the recycling process is generated from washing crushed waste using the "wet" method during operation of hydrocyclones, centrifuges, and flotation baths.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It is generally applicable for solid waste types.

     Economy

     Sale of secondary resources. Reducing the cost of burial.

     Generating income from the production and sale of RDF as a commercial fuel.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Requirements of the environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

5.4.7. Method of re-melting polymer waste to produce products by extrusion or injection molding

     Description

     The method of processing plastic waste makes it possible to produce granules using injection molding or extrusion technology.

     Technical description

     Injection molding is a process involving the shredding of waste films and sheets, and the molding of a new product by injection molding.

     For waste recycling by injection molding, machines with a constantly rotating screw are used, the design of which ensures spontaneous capture and homogenization of waste.

     The extrusion method consists of continuous pressing of molten polymer raw materials through a special forming head. Thanks to the output channel, the profile of the future product is determined. An extruder is used to carry out the extrusion process. In the extruder, the material is plasticized, homogenized and, if necessary, degassed.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     The method is more energetically beneficial than pyrolysis, as high-quality chemical products are returned to circulation.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     The most common types of equipment for processing polymer waste by thermoforming: worm presses; blow molding units; lines for the production of sleeve films; pipe lines and shell pipe lines; lines for the production of corrugated hoses; injection molding machines; extruders.

     Cross-media effects

     Consumption of energy resources, water resources (for cooling the molten mass), compressed air (degassing of equipment and processed material).

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     Applicable for polymer waste.

     Economy

     Sale of secondary resources. Reducing the cost of burial.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Requirements of the environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

5.4.8. Sterilization of medical waste

     Description

     The main physical methods of neutralization of medical waste include steam pressure sterilization; microwave treatment; sterilization by ionizing and infrared radiation.

     Technical description

     Physical methods of disinfection of medical waste of certain classes include exposure to saturated steam under excessive pressure, radiation, electromagnetic radiation, and are used in the presence of special equipment - installations for disinfection of medical waste.

     Microwave treatment is a relatively new method of disinfection, which is based on the radiation to which the objects to be disinfected are exposed. As a result of this process, microorganisms on potentially infected and infected hazardous medical waste are destroyed.

     The most common and effective method is autoclaving, in which waste is exposed to saturated steam at high pressure and temperature, which ensures the destruction of pathogenic microorganisms.

     The cycle time depends on the volume and type of waste, usually 30-60 minutes, the loading volume varies from small desktop autoclaves to large industrial plants capable of handling hundreds of liters of waste per cycle.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     From an environmental point of view, the safest option is, but only if the process is carried out on sound, airtight equipment.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     Steam disinfection of medical waste takes place in the autoclave. Medical waste that has undergone such disinfection must be further processed - compressed, crushed or crushed, so that the waste is unidentifiable and cannot be reused for other purposes. The additional treatment process significantly reduces the amount of medical waste.

     Plasma sterilization is a cost-effective method of sterilizing medical waste from materials that are sensitive to high temperature and moisture. In a plasma sterilizer, it is allowed to process products that have lost their consumer properties, made of polymers, power tools and cables, fiber-optic, light-conducting systems, electronic devices, optical glass products, etc.

     Cross-media effects

     Missing.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     Applicable for medical waste.

     Economy

     Depending on the method used in each specific case.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Requirements of the environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

5.4.9. Distillation (regeneration)

     Description

     A method for the disposal and neutralization of waste from organic solvents that do not contain halogens and have lost their consumer properties.

     Technical description

     Distillation (regeneration) is designed to separate spent solvents into recyclable solvents and non-recyclable residues. Distillation is applicable to all solvents and refrigerants subject to regeneration.

     Solvent distillers (regenerators) are equipment that purify contaminated solvents without losing their properties.

     If the spent solvents contain water, then pre-dewatering is carried out using settling filters.

5.4.9. Distillation (regeneration)

     Description

     A method for the disposal and neutralization of waste from organic solvents that do not contain halogens and have lost their consumer properties.

     Technical description

     Distillation (regeneration) is designed to separate spent solvents into recyclable solvents and non-recyclable residues. Distillation is applicable to all solvents and refrigerants subject to regeneration.

     Solvent distillers (regenerators) are equipment that purify contaminated solvents without losing their properties.

     If the spent solvents contain water, then pre-dewatering is carried out using settling filters.

     The contaminated solvent (organic or aqueous) evaporates during the distillation process and then condenses. The dirty solvent is pumped into the so-called working chamber. The flow supplied to the distillation is heated using heating elements (heat exchangers) provided with proper thermal insulation or an electric heater. When the boiling point is reached, the solvent begins to evaporate. Solvent vapors pass through the condenser. Condensate - a clear and purified solvent - flows out of the unit. The contaminated residue (solid impurities) is removed.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     The recovery of solvents for reuse can significantly reduce the consumption of primary resources and minimize waste generation, making a significant contribution to the development of a closed-loop economy. Through the regeneration and purification of spent solvents, the anthropogenic environmental impact associated with the production of new chemical products and the disposal of hazardous waste is reduced. This not only reduces the amount of harmful emissions and discharges, but also reduces energy consumption for the production of fresh solvents, which together can

      The driving force behind the implementation

     The increase in tariffs for waste disposal, the need for high-calorie waste disposal and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions are stimulating the introduction of pyrolysis solutions. In Kazakhstan, this is especially important for landfills with overloading, facilities without access to a centralized power grid, as well as industrial enterprises interested in autonomous energy sources. The support of "green" technologies and the potential export of pyrolysis oil open up prospects for sustainable development.

5.6.9. Processing of liquid hydrocarbon waste by thermocatalytic cracking

     Description

     The processing of toxic oil-containing waste and the production of commercial automobile fuel is the most advanced and environmentally friendly way of disposal. Technology and equipment for thermocatalytic treatment and destructive processing of liquid hydrocarbons with subsequent rectification are designed to produce components of light fractions of commercial petroleum products from heavy and toxic hydrocarbon wastes such as: used oils, mixtures of petroleum waste, oil sludge, oil sludge, coal tar. These types of waste are generated as a result of the activities of enterprises in various sectors of the economy: electric power, oil and gas, mining, metallurgy, chemical and manufacturing industries. The technology allows changing the physico-chemical properties of raw materials according to specified parameters, thanks to the use of an advanced catalytic system, to obtain the most demanded commercial products.

     The technology is based on a method of processing raw materials, which refers to thermal conversion and thermocatalytic degradation in the presence of an oil-soluble catalyst. The process uses a block for the preparation of mechanochemical activation of raw materials, where shear destruction occurs involving atoms of asphaltene nanoparticles in the dispersed phase of the colloidal system caused by the destruction of the stabilizing resin shells, and a catalyst input block, where the hydrodynamic effects of supersonic vapor-liquid flows, as well as ejection processes characterized by high stresses, shear rates, and high-frequency flow pulsations occur. Flow reactors with a pressure of 0.1-2 MPa are also used to form hydrogen and a co-catalyst in the reaction zone. Next, the raw material is heated in an oven at 350-420 ° C and fed into a film separation column. The result of the technology is an increase in the depth of processing of raw materials with an increase in the yield of distillate fractions up to 90% (depending on the physico-chemical composition of the raw materials). The cubic tar residue, passing through the oxidation unit, turns into modified bitumen of high quality and is packed in big bags or in metal eurobags. All this allows for recycling without waste generation, as well as volatile emissions due to filtration and gorenje catalysts.

     The equipment makes it possible to maximize the yield of commercial petroleum products (corresponds to the Euro-5 environmental class) and completely eliminate the release of solid waste. The plant is capable of producing diesel fuel and gasoline without any additional processing after its distillation.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     The technology of thermocatalytic cracking (TCC) makes it possible not to generate volatile emissions and solid waste from recycling activities through the use of oil-soluble catalysts that allow the conversion and splitting of heavy hydrocarbon compounds into light commercial petroleum products. And the cubic residue (tar) from the distillation process to modified construction and road bitumen.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     The industrial application of the technology in a closed hangar has shown the absence of emissions from rectification due to the use of a German-made diesel automatic burner and special combustion catalysts. Gorenje The residual product of processing is tar, which, passing through the oxidation unit, turns into modified BND 90/130 bitumen.

     Cross-media effects

     When using the technology of thermocatalytic cracking (TCC), a reduction in the overall environmental load is achieved by: a) reducing the volume of waste sent to landfill; b) reducing emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere (compared with incineration); c) eliminating the risk of contamination of soil and water bodies. The absence of by-product formation simplifies the disposal process and reduces the need for additional control measures.

     Applicability

     The TCC technology using oil-soluble catalysts for processing toxic oil-containing waste is one of the most effective methods for converting waste into a commercial product. This method completely coincides with the global Concept of a circular (closed) economy based on the renewal of resources, as it is an indisputable alternative to the traditional linear economy.

     Economy

     The conversion of hydrocarbon waste into commercial petroleum products of the Euro-5 class is an environmentally sound and economically cost-effective way of disposing of toxic waste, rather than using them to generate thermal energy through combustion. The production of diesel fuel and gasoline from hydrocarbon waste has a high gross margin (40-50%), positive operating profitability from the first month of operation and a fast payback period of 18 months from the start of production. But it all depends on the type of hydrocarbon waste. For example, the processing of couscous in the mining industry is highly profitable due to the aromatic hydrocarbons produced, the cost of which is very high on the market.

     The effect of the implementation

     At the moment, primitive cracking plants from manufacturers in Russia and China are represented on the market with different performance. Some of them are certified, the rest are artisanal. These installations do not involve the use of: catalytic systems, various types of raw materials / waste and methods of its preparation for high-quality extraction of petroleum products. The significant disadvantages of such equipment are the low quality of the straight-run products produced (not marketable); the formation and accumulation of a significant amount of intermediate waste, requiring disposal.; and direct emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere.

     Example

     Today, the industrial application of the technology is carried out on the territory of Armenia and the Russian Federation (Novoshakhtinsk (refinery). The processing of bitumen oil, fuel oil and waste oils in Armenia (Yerevan) was carried out using the company's technology, consisting of 4 block-modular complexes:

     1). the block of preparation and processing of hydrocarbon raw materials with the introduction of catalysts;

     2). a processing (rectification) unit with a capacity of 30 tons per day for raw materials;

     3). desulfurization unit by filtration on alumina catalysts alloyed with various metals in various combinations;

     4). tar oxidation unit, in order to obtain modified road or construction bitumen.

     Gasoline and diesel fuel of the Euro-5 class were obtained as a result of processing of heavy hydrocarbon raw materials.

5.7. BAT aimed at preventing and reducing organized emissions

5.7.1. Bag filters

     Description

     Cleaning of exhaust gases from dust by passing through a tightly woven or felt fabric, as a result of which solid particles collect on the fabric by sieving or other methods.

     Technical description

     Bag filters are made of porous woven or felt fabric through which gases are passed to remove particles. The use of a fabric filter requires the selection of a fabric suitable for the characteristics of the exhaust gas and the maximum operating temperature. Bag filters are usually classified according to the method of cleaning the filter material. It is necessary to regularly remove dust from the fabric to maintain the extraction efficiency.

     The most common cleaning methods are reverse airflow, mechanical shaking, vibration, low-pressure air pulsation, and compressed air pulsation. Acoustic buckets are also used to clean filter hoses. Standard cleaning mechanisms do not ensure that the sleeve returns to its original state, since particles deposited deep in the fabric reduce the size of the pores between the fibers, although this ensures high efficiency in cleaning submicron vapors.

      Рисунок 5.1. Конструкция рукавного фильтра.

      Эффективность очистки в рукавных фильтрах в основном зависит от свойств фильтровальной ткани, из которой изготавливаются рукава аппарата, а также от того, в какой мере эти свойства соответствуют свойствам очищаемой среды и взвешенных в ней частиц. При выборе ткани необходимо учитывать состав газов, природу и размер частиц пыли, способ очистки, требуемую эффективность и экономические показатели. Также учитывается температура газа, способ охлаждения газа, если таковой имеется, образующийся водяной пар и точка кипения кислоты.

      В таблице 5.1. представлены типы тканей, широко используемых при очистке.

      Таблица 5.1. Сравнение различных систем тканевых фильтров

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    There are several different designs of bag filters that use different types of filter media. The use of membrane filtration (surface filtration) technologies leads to an additional increase in service life, an increase in temperature limits (up to 260 °C) and relatively low maintenance costs. Membrane filter hoses consist of an ultrathin expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membrane embedded in the base material. The particles in the exhaust gas stream are trapped on the surface of the sleeve. Instead of forming a deposit on the inside or penetrating into the sleeve tissue, the particles are repelled from the membrane, thereby forming a smaller deposit.

     Synthetic filter fabrics such as Teflon/fiberglass allow bag filters to be used in a wide range of processes, ensuring a long service life. The efficiency of modern filtration materials at high temperatures or under abrasive conditions is high enough, and fabric manufacturers can assist in determining the material for a specific application. By using a suitable design for the appropriate type of dust, very low dust emissions can be achieved in special cases. Higher reliability and longer service life offset the cost of modern bag filters. Achieving low levels of dust emissions is important because dust can contain significant levels of metals. In order to prevent the leakage of uncleaned gases into the atmosphere, it is necessary to take into account the effect of deformation of distribution manifolds and proper sealing of hoses.

     Due to the possible clogging of filters under certain conditions (for example, in the case of sticky dust or when used in air streams at condensation temperatures) and sensitivity to fire, they are not suitable for all applications. The filters can also be used in conjunction with existing bag filters and can be retrofitted. In particular, the sleeve sealing system can be improved during annual maintenance, and the filter sleeves can be replaced with more modern materials according to standard replacement schedules, which can also reduce future costs.

     The most common type of filters used are bag filters in the form of bags, with several separate filter elements made of fabric placed together in a group. Bag filters can also be in the form of sheets or cartridges.

     The filter consists of several sections, some of which operate in the mode of filtration of the gas being cleaned, and some in the mode of regeneration, i.e. removal of dust deposited on the sleeves. In the cleaning mode, the dusty gas is filtered through the pores of the sleeve, and the dust is deposited on its surface. Over time, the hydraulic resistance of the sleeve with the accumulated dust layer increases, and the deposition efficiency increases. At the same time, the gas flow capacity of the filter is significantly reduced, and the section is switched off for regeneration to remove dust by mechanical (shaking, twisting) and (or) aerodynamic (pulsed purging with compressed air) methods. The gas flow to be treated can be directed either from inside the sleeve to the outside, or from outside the sleeve to the inside. If relatively large particles are contained in the incoming waste, mechanical collectors (cyclones, electrostatic filters, etc.) can be used for additional pre-cleaning to reduce the load on the bag filter, especially at high particle concentrations at the inlet.

     To ensure proper operation of the filter, use one or more of the following functions.

     Special attention is paid to the choice of the filter material and the reliability of the fastening and sealing system. Carrying out proper maintenance. Modern filter media tend to be more durable and have a longer service life. In most cases, the additional cost of modern materials is offset by a long service life.

     The operating temperature is above the condensation point of the gas. Heat-resistant sleeves and fasteners are used at higher operating temperatures.

     Continuous monitoring of dust content by capturing and using optical or triboelectric devices to detect filter failures. If necessary, the device must interact with the filter cleaning system to detect individual sections containing worn or damaged hoses.

     The use of gas cooling and spark extinguishing, if necessary. Cyclones are considered suitable devices for spark extinguishing. Most modern filters are located in several compartments, so damaged compartments can be isolated if necessary.

     Temperature and spark generation monitoring can be used to detect fires. In case of an ignition hazard, inert gas systems can be provided or inert materials (e.g., calcium hydroxide) can be added to the exhaust gas. Excessive overheating of the fabric beyond the design limits can cause toxic gaseous emissions.

     It is necessary to monitor the pressure drop to control the cleaning mechanism.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Removal of solid particles up to 2.5 microns in size. Removal of certain gaseous pollutants is possible if combined with systems located after the dust extraction chamber with bag filters and associated with the addition of additional materials, including adsorption and dry injection of lime/sodium bicarbonate.

     The bag filter is highly effective in reducing dust levels and simultaneous emissions of heavy metals in the exhaust gas stream. Additive-enhanced bag filters also reduce emissions of PCDD/F, hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrofluoric acid (HF) and, to a lesser extent, sulfur dioxide (SO2). In particular, PCDD/F emissions can be significantly reduced.

     By installing and regulating the use of a bag filter, it is possible to obtain the value of solids at the outlet in the range of <2-5 mg/nm3.

     The addition of lime and carbon reduces dioxin emissions to <0.1 ng I TEQ/Nm3. Volatile heavy metals and VOCs are simultaneously reduced through the use of carbon-containing additives and zeolites. For example, the mercury content is reduced by 80-95%.

     SO2 can be reduced by about 30-80% with slaked lime and up to 90% with sodium bicarbonate.

     Depending on the amount of lime or sodium bicarbonate injected, the result in CO2 emissions can range from 100 to 500 mg/Nm3. Depending on the incoming SO2, daily average SOX values of less than 350 mg/Nm3 were achieved in practice. With the addition of lime, HF emission concentrations of 0.2-1 mg/Nm3 and HCl emission concentrations of 1-10 mg/Nm3 (on average per day) can be achieved.

     The use of bag filters increases the recycling of dioxins and residues containing heavy metals.

     Catalytic fabric filters in which the catalyst is applied to the inner part of the surface of the filter cloth (for example, the Remedia D/F type of catalytic filter system) can reduce the concentration of PCDD and PCDF from 10 to <0.1 ng.mn-3 TE. Operating temperature 180-260 °C. The filter cloth can be made of polytetrafluoroethylene.

     Environmental characteristics and operational data

     Removal of certain gaseous pollutants is possible if combined with systems located after the dust extraction chamber with bag filters and associated with the addition of additional materials, including adsorption and dry injection of lime/sodium bicarbonate. When using bag filters, there is no need to clean sludge and wastewater.

     Cross-media effects

     If regeneration is not possible, the filter cloth should be replaced every 2-4 years (the service life depends on various factors). Pressure drop, which should be compensated by pumping, resulting in additional energy consumption. Since fabric filters capture fine particles very effectively, they also effectively reduce emissions of heavy metals, which are contained in flue gas dust in the form of submicron particles.

     Additionally, it is possible to increase the compressed air consumption for the cleaning cycle.

     Additional waste may occur during maintenance.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It is generally applicable to types of activities and technological processes according to the scope of the BAT handbook.

     Economy

     Depending on the method used in each specific case (type and number of filter hoses used). The cost of filters depends on the efficiency of the equipment (filter load), the cleaning systems used (integrated or secondary), as well as the differential pressure of the filter itself. Reducing investment costs is possible by organizing a close interaction of the above factors, namely due to the lowest differential pressure values and the minimum for air during cleaning, as well as the maximum possible air-skin ratio.

     When estimating the cost of a bag filter with a flow supply unit, it should be borne in mind that these installations are used not only to separate dust, but also to reduce the content of PCDD/F, heavy metals and acid gases such as HF, HCl and SO2.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Reducing emissions into the environment. Requirements of the environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Saving resources.

5.7.2. Pulse cleaning filters

     Description

The pulse bag filter is designed to purify air masses from various fine dust accumulations. A pulse purge regeneration system with compressed air masses is installed in these devices. The sleeves on metal supports act as a cleaning element.

     Technical description

     Pulse purging of bag filters is used to prevent a decrease in cleaning efficiency due to the accumulation of a dust layer on the sleeve surface. Its use ensures the regeneration of equipment operability and the elimination of a decrease in cleaning efficiency.

     The description of the structural elements makes it clear how the bag filter works.

     The dusty flow is supplied to the inlet valve of the device. Depending on the available infrastructure, auxiliary elements can be used - pneumatic pumps, compressors, pressure fans, and other superchargers. In the case of processing a high-temperature stream, mixing clean cool atmospheric air into the filter can be implemented.

     The air flow comes into contact with the outer surface of dense non-woven hoses, while dust particles settle outside the bags, while clean air passes inside the frames and enters a clean chamber, from where it is discharged into the production room or into the external atmosphere.;

     As dust inclusions settle on the surface of the hoses, it becomes more and more difficult for the air to "break through" the increasing mechanical barrier, and the productivity of the device decreases - regeneration of the hoses is necessary.

     Depending on the implemented regeneration system, reverse pulse purging, shaking or other effects are performed on the filter elements, which allows them to free their surface from dust and restore the nominal efficiency of the device.

     The dust falls into the hopper, and the cycle repeats.

     All dust collectors favorably differ in the following range of technical characteristics:

     environmental capacity - up to 100,000 m3/hour;

     the dispersion/size of the captured dust> 0.5 microns;

     work with air flows of any degree of dustiness;

     the shock pulse method of self-cleaning of hoses ensures uninterrupted operation, high speed and efficiency of dust removal from cartridges due to the use of flat Venturi nozzles of special design;

     The filter material is non-woven needle-punched fiber;

     the ability to process streams with temperatures up to 200 °C;

     automation of the control system of the device via an electronic controller;

     optional -installation of a controller-compatible differential pressure gauge to control the unit;

     Optionally, a vibration system is installed on a dust bin to prevent highly adhesive dust from sticking to the walls. It is possible to equip the hopper with an auger for continuous dust discharge;

     reliable, compact and durable.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Reduction of dust emissions.

     Environmental characteristics and operational data

     Dedusting efficiency is up to 99.9% (if the operating rules are followed and the filter is properly adjusted/adjusted).

     Cross-media effects

     There is no information available.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It is generally applicable to types of activities and technological processes according to the scope of the BAT handbook.

     Economy

     Depending on the method used in each specific case.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Reduction of dust emissions.

5.7.3. Ceramic and metal filters

     Description

     Ceramic filters are often used in waste recycling plants. These filters are used in cases where it is necessary to filter out submicron dust particles to such a small amount that they are almost impossible to measure. Metal-ceramic filters of various shapes are designed for filtration of liquids and gases.

     In terms of operating principles, overall design, and cleaning capabilities, fine-mesh ceramic filters are similar to bag filters. Instead of fabric sleeves on a metal frame, they use rigid filter elements shaped like a candle.

     Technical description

     These filters are used to remove fine particles, including PM10. Filters have high temperature resistance, and it is often the filter housing that determines the upper limit of the operating temperature. Expansion of the support structure at high temperatures is also an important factor, since this breaks the tightness of the filter elements in the housing, which leads to the leakage of uncleaned gas into the purified stream. Real-time fault detection systems are used in a similar way to bag filters. Ceramic and metal mesh filters are not as flexible as bag filters. When cleaning such filters by purging, fine dust is not removed with the same efficiency as from a cloth filter, which leads to the accumulation of fine dust inside the filter and, thus, to a decrease in its performance. This is due to the accumulation of ultrafine dust.

     Ceramic filters are made from aluminosilicates and can be coated with a layer of various filter materials to improve chemical or acid resistance, or to filter other pollutants. Filter elements are relatively easy to handle when they are new, but after they are exposed to high temperatures, they become brittle and can be accidentally damaged during maintenance or careless cleaning attempts.

     The presence of sticky dust or tar is a potential problem because they are difficult to remove from the filter during normal cleaning, which can lead to pressure drops. The effect of temperature on the filter material accumulates, so it must be taken into account when designing the installation. With the appropriate materials and construction, very low emissions can be achieved. Reducing emissions is an important factor because dust contains a large amount of metals.

     An upgraded metal strainer also has similar performance at high temperatures. The development of technologies ensures the rapid formation of a dust crust after cleaning, when the relevant area has been decommissioned.

     Due to the possibility of clogging of the filter material under certain conditions (for example, sticky dust or at an air flow temperature close to the dew point) These methods are not suitable for all operating conditions. They can be used in existing ceramic filters and can be modified. In particular, the sealing system can be improved during routine maintenance.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Industrial tests of the CF2-6-1 centrifugal filter in the conditions of a sand pneumatic transmission system have shown that the efficiency of cleaning the gas and dust stream from sand particles in a six-channel centrifugal filter reaches 98.65%. The use of a two-stage gas purification system consisting of a centrifugal filter and a ceramic pulse filter (PKI) makes it possible to achieve a residual concentration of solid particles at the outlet of such an installation of 5 mg/m3 with an initial dust content of 127878 mg/m3. Rigid ceramic-based filter elements can be used to purify gases with temperatures up to 1000 °C.

     Cross-media effects

     The consumption of electrical energy increases with increasing efficiency of dust collection. The formation of wastewater requiring further treatment to prevent the discharge of metals and other substances into water bodies.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It is generally applicable to types of activities and technological processes according to the scope of the BAT handbook.

     Economy

     In each individual case, the cost of the equipment is individual, but the processes work economically.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Reduction of dust emissions. Save raw materials if the dust can be returned to the process.

5.7.4. Cyclones

     Description

     A cyclone for removing dust particles is one of the main devices for purifying air and process exhaust gases from solid pollutants that are formed as a result of the activities of various manufacturing enterprises. Due to the simplicity of the design, the absence of movable components and mechanisms, and the possibility of increasing productivity by combining into groups and batteries, dry cleaning cyclones are widely used in technological and preparatory production processes.

     Technical description

     It is mainly recommended to use them for pre-purification of gases and to install them in front of highly efficient devices (for example, filters or electrostatic precipitators). To remove particles from the exhaust gas stream, the principle of inertia is used, based on the creation of a double vortex funnel inside the cyclone body by centrifugal forces. The incoming gas is driven in a circular motion down the cyclone near the inner surface of the cyclone tube. In the lower part, the gas turns and rotates up the center of the tube and exits the upper part of the cyclone. The particles in the gas stream are pushed towards the cyclone walls by the centrifugal force of the rotating gas, but they are opposed by the force of the liquid resistance of the gas passing through and out of the cyclone. Large particles reach the cyclone wall and collect in the lower hopper, while small particles leave the cyclone with the exhaust gas and can be removed by other cleaning methods such as bag filters, electrostatic precipitators, scrubber systems.

     Cyclones purify gases with an efficiency of 80-95% from dust particles larger than 10 microns.

     Wet cyclones are highly efficient devices that spray water into the exhaust gas stream to increase the weight of solid particles and, consequently, remove smaller dust particles.

To clean large volumes of dust and gas streams, as well as to capture particles smaller than 10 microns, battery cyclones (multicyclones) are used, which are composed of a large number of cyclone elements combined with a common dust hopper and having special devices for swirling the gas stream. The gas supply for cleaning occurs tangentially or axially, after which the gas is rotated by the blades. Proper gas distribution of honey by cyclone elements of a multicyclone is a very important factor, since with uneven gas distribution, reverse or clogging of the gas may occur. The effectiveness of multicyclones depends on the particle size and can reach more than 99%.

     Depending on the performance, cyclones can be installed one at a time (single cyclones) or combined into groups of two, four, six or eight cyclones (group cyclones).

      Figure 5.2. Basic diagram of the cyclone device.

     The standard size of the cyclone is selected based on performance, taking into account the optimal speed in the cylindrical part of the cyclone.

     Depending on the flow rate of the treated air, cyclones can be used in single or group versions consisting of 2, 4, 6 and 8 cyclones. When selecting the cyclone size, it is taken into account that as the cyclone diameter increases, the degree of air purification decreases. Cyclones with a diameter of less than 800 mm are not recommended for capturing abrasive dust.

     Material for the manufacture of cyclones at ambient temperatures: up to 40 ° C - carbon steel, at temperatures below -40 ° C - low-alloy steels.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Reduction of particulate emissions into the atmosphere. Reducing the load of pollutants, before the next stages of purification (if applicable). Cyclones are used to capture solid particles measuring 5-25 microns (5 microns using multicyclones). The efficiency ranges from 60-99%, depending on the particle size and cyclone design, and can range from 300 to 600 mg/Nm3.

     Environmental characteristics and operational data

     The degree of dust capture largely depends on the particle size and cyclone design, and increases as the pollutant load increases: for standard individual cyclones, this value is approximately 70-90% for the total amount of suspended particles, 30-90%.

     Basic operating conditions of cyclones:

     It is necessary to ensure that dust does not accumulate in the conical part of the cyclone. A special hopper is provided for its collection under the cyclone.;

     air intake in the lower part of the cyclone is unacceptable. The dust collection bin must be airtight. The dust is discharged from the hopper through a pipe with a double shutter-flashing light, adjusted so that the valves work alternately.;

     Standard cyclone designs can operate at a gas temperature of no more than 400°C.With and pressure (rarefaction) not more than 2.5 kPa;

     when running on high-temperature gas, the cyclones inside are lined with refractory tiles, and the exhaust pipe is made of heat-resistant steel or ceramic. At low outdoor temperatures, the minimum temperature of the cyclone wall should exceed the dew point temperature by at least 20-25 °C. To ensure this condition, in some cases, the walls of cyclones are covered with thermal insulation from the outside.;

     The initial concentration for non-adhering dusts in cyclones with a diameter of 800 mm or more is allowed up to 400 g/Nm3. For clumping dusts and cyclones of smaller sizes, the dust concentration should be 2-4 times lower.;

     The cyclone must operate with a constant gas load. In case of significant fluctuations in flow, groups of cyclones should be installed with the possibility of disconnecting individual elements.;

     It is recommended to install cyclones in front of the fans so that the latter run on purified gas and are not subjected to abrasive wear.

     Cyclones are most effective at high air speeds, small diameters, and long cylinder lengths. The air velocity in a cyclone ranges from 10 m/s to 20 m/s, and the average speed is about 16 m/s. Fluctuations in the speed value (decrease in speed) lead to a sharp decrease in cleaning efficiency.

     The capture efficiency can be increased by increasing:

     particle size and/or density;

     speeds in the intake duct;

     cyclone body lengths;

     the number of revolutions of gas in a cyclone;

     the ratio of the diameter of the cyclone body to the diameter of the outlet;

     smoothness of the inner wall of the cyclone.

     Efficiency decreases when:

     increasing the viscosity of the gas;

     increasing the diameter of the cyclone chamber;

     increasing the gas density;

     increasing the size of the channel at the gas inlet;

     air leaks into the dust outlet.

     Maintenance requirements for cyclones are low: easy access must be provided to inspect the cyclone for erosion or corrosion. The pressure drop in the cyclone is regularly monitored, and the dust collection system is checked for blockages.

     Cross-media effects

     An increase in the amount of waste if the collected dust cannot be returned to the process. The operation of cyclones is a source of noise that must be eliminated by fencing the equipment.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     Cyclones can be used in both new and existing installations. Cyclones are used to remove PM10-sized solid particles. Highly efficient multicyclones are used to remove smaller particles (PM2.5).

     In most cases, cyclones are used as pre-cleaners for more efficient systems, such as bag filters (see section 5.4.1.) and electrostatic precipitators (see section 5.4.5.), due to low efficiency indicators, which usually do not meet air pollution standards.

     Advantages of using:

     recovery of raw materials (return of trapped dust particles to the technological process);

     no moving parts, hence low maintenance requirements;

     low maintenance costs;

     low investment costs;

     dry collection and disposal, except for the use of wet cyclones;

     relatively low requirements for the placement site.

     Applicability may be limited:

     relatively low cleaning efficiency for fine particles;

     relatively high pressure drop;

     the presence of sticky or sticky materials in the composition of the gases to be cleaned;

     the noise level of the equipment.

     Economy

     As a rule, single structures used to clean exhaust gases with a low concentration of solid particles will be more expensive (per unit flow rate and per amount of purified pollutant) than a large installation for cleaning the exhaust gas stream with a high concentration.

     So, for a single cyclone with a throughput of 1800 - 43000 Nm3/h and a residual dust content between 2.3 and 230 g/Nm3, the capture efficiency is 90%. For a multicyclone with a throughput in the range of 36,000 Nm3/h and 180,000 Nm3/h, the indicators of residual dust and efficiency are similar to those of a single cyclone.

     The operating costs depend on the pressure drop and, consequently, on the cost of electricity.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Reduction of particulate emissions, with the possibility of regeneration (reuse as a raw material).

5.7.5. Electrofilters

     Description

     Capture of solid particles from the exhaust gas stream by electrostatic force.

     Technical description

     The particles to be removed are charged, and special electrodes located in the filter housing have a different charge. When dusty air passes through, dust particles are attracted to the electrodes and subsequently poured into the receiving hopper. The cleaning efficiency may depend on the number of fields, residence time, and previous particle removal devices. Electrostatic filters can be of a dry or wet type, depending on the method used to collect dust from the electrodes.

     The most commonly used devices for cleaning large volumes of exhaust gases in sintering plants are dry electrostatic precipitators with three or four fields arranged in series.

     The electrostatic precipitator consists of several high-voltage corona electrodes and corresponding precipitation electrodes. The particles are charged and subsequently released from the gas stream under the influence of an electric field created between the electrodes. The electric field between the electrodes is created by a small direct current of high voltage (100 kV). In practice, the electrostatic precipitator is divided into a number of discrete zones (usually up to five). The diagram of the electrostatic precipitator is shown in the figure below.

     Figure 5.3. Electrical filter device diagram

     (only two zones are shown).

     The particles are removed from the gas stream in four stages:

     1) pointing an electric charge at dust particles;

     2) feeding charged dust into an electric field;

     3) Dust capture by collector electrode;

     4) Removing dust from the electrode surface.

     Corona electrodes must be shaken or vibrated to prevent dust accumulation, and their mechanical strength must withstand such an impact. The mechanical reliability of the corona electrodes and their supporting structure is of great importance, since even one broken cable can short out the entire electric field of the electrostatic precipitator.

     The performance of the electrostatic precipitator is determined by Deutsch's formula, according to which efficiency is determined by the total surface area of the precipitation electrodes, the volume flow rate of gas and the rate of particle migration. Thus, increasing the surface area of the precipitation electrodes is of great importance for trapping a specific type of dust, and therefore a modern approach is to use an expanded interelectrode space. In turn, this implies a reliable design and control of the rectifier device.

     The design of the rectifiers used provides for the use of separate sections of the device for each zone or part of the zone of the electrostatic precipitator. This allows you to apply different voltages at the input and output zones, since the dust load at the output is less, and also makes it possible to gradually increase the voltage applied to the zones without sparking. A good design also implies the use of automated control systems that maintain an optimally high voltage applied without sparking to the electrodes of a specific zone. An automatic control and measuring device is used to supply the highest possible high voltage without creating sparks and constantly changing its value. The supply of constant high-voltage power supply practically does not allow for optimal dust collection efficiency.

     Of particular importance is the electrical resistance (the inverse of the electrical conductivity) of the dust. If it is too low, then the particles, reaching the precipitation electrode, easily lose their charge, and secondary dust entrainment may occur. With increased dust resistivity, an insulating layer forms on the electrode, which prevents normal corona and leads to a decrease in the efficiency of trapping. Basically, the specific resistance of dust is in the operating range, but the capture efficiency can be further improved by improving the physical characteristics of the particles. Ammonia and sulfur trioxide are widely used for this purpose. Resistivity can also be reduced by lowering the temperature or humidifying the gas.

     To achieve high performance values of the electrostatic precipitator, the gas is passed through special devices that ensure uniformity of flow, preventing passage outside the electric field. The correct design of the inlet flues and the presence of flow distribution devices at the inlet of the electrostatic precipitator are necessary to achieve uniformity of flow.

     Ion abrasive treatment electrostatic precipitators usually operate in the range of 100-150 kV to ensure high separation efficiency. A distinctive feature of the electrostatic precipitators is the ability to operate at high temperatures (hot) and high humidity of dedusting gases (wet).

     Table 5.2. Cleaning efficiency and emission levels associated with the use of electrostatic precipitators

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    Environmental benefits achieved

     ESPs reduce dust emissions with an efficiency of >95%. In some cases, the achievable efficiency is more than 99%. On average, ESF with MEEP fields can reach dust concentrations in the range from 2 to 20 mg/Nm3 per year, only taking into account normal operating periods and excluding starts and stops.

     Environmental characteristics and operational data

     The main advantages of electric gas purification are as follows:

     wide range of productivity - from several m3/hour to millions m3/hour;

     The efficiency of dust removal ranges from 96.5% to 99.95%.

     hydraulic resistance not more than 0.2 kPa (this is the main reason for low operating costs);

     The electrostatic precipitators can capture dry particles, liquid droplets and mist particles.;

     The electrostatic precipitators capture particles ranging in size from 0.01 microns (viruses, tobacco smoke) to tens of microns.

     The electrostatic precipitators are successfully used at enterprises in Russia, Belgium, Finland, Sweden and the European Union.

     Cross-media effects

     The consumption of electrical energy increases with increasing efficiency of dust collection. Additional waste may be generated during maintenance of the electrostatic precipitator. The need to recycle dust if it cannot be reused.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It is generally applicable to types of activities and technological processes according to the scope of the BAT handbook.

     Due to their high efficiency, low hydraulic resistance, high efficiency and energy efficiency, electrostatic precipitators have become the most successful installations for capturing dust from exhaust gases from the main process equipment.

     The electrostatic precipitators can be installed in both new and existing installations. Electrofilters with a movable layer can be installed as the last field of an existing electrofilter or as a separate unit in its own housing, but the location and possibility of installation of any type will depend on the specific location.

     Economy

     In each individual case, the cost of the equipment is individual.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Reduction of dust emissions with the possibility of its reuse.

     Save raw materials if the dust can be returned to the process.

5.7.6. Wet scrubber

     Description

     Removal of solid pollutants from process flue gas or flue gas stream by transferring gases to a suitable liquid, often water or an aqueous solution.

     Technical description

     Wet scrubbers typically have at least two effective stages: the first, at low pH, removes mainly HCl and HF, as well as metals, the second stage is dosed with lime milk, limestone slurry, or sodium hydroxide and operates at pH 6-8 mainly to remove SO2. Scrubbers can sometimes be described as three or more stages. moreover, the additional stages are usually the stages of the first stage of low pH for specific purposes.

     The capture of particles using wet scrubbers involves the use of three main mechanisms: inertial collision, retention and dispersion. The size of the collected particles, as well as their wetting ability, are of great importance. The diagram of the radial wet scrubber is shown in Figure 5.4.

     Figure 5.4. Radial wet scrubber.

     Wet scrubbers are used for cooling, saturation and pre-purification of gas, for example, when installed in front of wet electrostatic precipitators. Their distinctive feature is the capture of trapped particles by a liquid that carries them away from the apparatus in the form of sludge. Water is most often used as an irrigation liquid in wet dust collectors. In the case of combined dust collection and chemical purification of gases, the choice of an irrigation liquid (absorbent) is determined by the absorption process.

     Wet devices have the following advantages: simplicity of design and relatively low cost; higher efficiency compared to dry mechanical inertial type dust collectors; smaller dimensions compared to fabric filters and electrostatic precipitators; the possibility of using gases at high temperature and high humidity; trapping vapors and gaseous components together with suspended solids. Typical examples are a Venturi scrubber or a radial pressure drop scrubber.

     The simplest Venturi scrubber includes a Venturi tube and a direct-flow cyclone.

     The Venturi pipe consists of a confuser used to increase the gas velocity, in which an irrigation device is placed, a neck where dust particles settle on water droplets, and a diffuser in which coagulation processes occur, and by reducing the speed, part of the pressure used to create a high gas velocity in the neck is restored. The rotation of the gas stream is created in the tangential gas inlet droplet collector, as a result of which the moistened and enlarged dust particles are discarded on the walls and continuously removed from the droplet collector in the form of sludge.

     In centrifugal scrubbers, simultaneously with the cooling of gases, SO2 is adsorbed from them. Due to the low degree of purification, centrifugal scrubbers of the TS-WTC type are not currently used as dust collecting devices, but they are widely used as drip traps in Venturi scrubbers. In this case, no irrigation water is supplied.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Wet dust collection devices are simpler in design, but at the same time they have the efficiency inherent in the most complex dry dust collectors.

     The advantages of wet dust collectors in comparison with dry type devices are:

     higher efficiency of suspended particle capture;

     the ability to purify gases from smaller particles (in the best wet devices, it is possible to remove particles with a size of about 0.1 microns);

     the permissibility of gas purification at high temperature and high humidity.

     Disadvantages:

     the release of trapped dust in the form of sludge, which is associated with the need for wastewater treatment, that is, with an increase in the cost of the process;

     the possibility of liquid droplets being carried away and deposited with dust in flues and flues;

     in the case of cleaning aggressive gases, it is necessary to protect equipment and communications with anticorrosive materials.

     Water is most often used as an irrigation liquid in wet dust collectors; while solving the issues of dust collection and chemical purification of gases, the choice of an irrigation liquid (absorbent) is determined by the absorption process.

     As a result of the contact of a dusty gas stream with a liquid in wet dust collectors, an interfacial contact surface is formed. The nature of the phase contact surface is different in different devices.: it can consist of gas jets, bubbles, liquid jets, droplets, and liquid films. Since different types of surfaces are observed in dust collectors, dust is trapped in them by various mechanisms.

     Wet systems can process HCl, HF, and SO2 separately from the dust that is usually removed earlier. However, wet systems provide some additional reductions in the following substances:

     Dust - when the scrubber's capacity is large enough to prevent clogging (most often, a pre-cleaning stage is used before the wet scrubber to reduce the amount of dust and prevent operational problems), up to 50% of the amount of dust.

     PCDD/F (polychlorodibenzo-p-dioxins and furans) - if carbon-impregnated packaging or sorbing materials are used in waste recovery, a typical decrease in the concentration of these compounds can reach 70% when using standard cleaning systems. However, the use of multi-stage systems containing sufficient amounts of carbon materials makes it possible to ensure emission levels well below 0.1 ng MTE/Nm3 even at facilities that process mixed, including hazardous, waste.

     For additional purification, it is possible to add activated carbon or coke to wet or dry gas purification systems (for example, scrubbers), which provides a similar efficiency of removing PCDD/F. In the absence of carbon additives, the removal efficiency of these persistent organic pollutants remains extremely low.

     The application of such measures contributes to the achievement of high environmental standards in the implementation of waste recovery processes, especially with regard to the control of pollutants of the first hazard class.

     Hg2+ - if a first-stage scrubber with a low pH (~ 1) is used, and HCl concentrations in the waste ensure acidification of this stage, then mercury is removed as HgCl2; elemental mercury, as a rule, is not affected.

     Other pollutants - When water-soluble pollutants such as bromine and iodine are present in the raw gas, they can condense at low temperatures in the scrubber and thus enter the scrubber wastewater.

     Environmental characteristics and operational data

     Venturi scrubbers can operate with high efficiency (96-99% on dust with an average particle size of 1-2 microns) and capture highly dispersed dust particles (up to submicron sizes) in a wide range of its initial concentration in the gas: 0.05 - 100 g/m3. When operating in the fine cleaning mode, the gas velocity in the neck should be maintained within 100-150 m/s, and the specific water consumption should be within 0.5 - 1.2 dm3/m3. This necessitates a large pressure drop (Dp = 10-20 kPa) and, consequently, significant energy consumption for gas purification. The degree of SO2 capture by water is usually 40-50%.

     The lower value of the range can be achieved by using a wet scrubber; the upper value of the range can be associated with the use of dry sorbent injection [3].

     Cross-media effects

     The conditions of dispersion of moist purified gases in the atmosphere may worsen (additional purification may be required). High energy consumption (especially for turbulent dust collectors).

     Water consumption largely depends on the incoming and outgoing concentrations of gaseous compounds. Evaporation losses are mainly determined by the temperature and humidity of the incoming gas stream. The outgoing gas stream is, in most cases, completely saturated with water vapor. It is usually necessary to clean the recirculating liquid, depending on its decomposition and evaporation losses.

     As a result of absorption, waste liquid is formed (in the form of effluents and sludge), which usually requires further treatment or disposal (especially if it contains aggressive components) if it cannot be reused. The problem that arises when using this method is erosion, which can occur due to high velocity in the channel. This necessitates the use of anticorrosive and in some cases expensive and scarce structural materials.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It is generally applicable to types of activities and technological processes according to the scope of the BAT handbook. Wet flue gas treatment is widely used in Europe for the entire range of waste types.

     Economy

     Depending on the method used in each specific case.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Reduction of atmospheric emissions.

     Requirements of the environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

5.7.7. Dry and semi-dry scrubbers

     Description

     Scrubbers can be used to purify gas from small particles of solids.

     A dry powder or suspension/solution of alkaline reagents is added to the exhaust gas stream and dispersed. The material reacts with the gaseous components of sulfur and forms solid particles, which are removed by filtration (bag filters or electrostatic precipitators). The efficiency of the gas purification system increases when using a reaction column.

     Technical description

     Absorption methods such as dry scrubbers are used to absorb acid gases and metallic or organic compounds. Lime, magnesium hydroxide, limestone, zinc oxide and alumina are often used in both cases, as well as two-alkali scrubbers. Activated carbon (or coke) is used to remove metal (mercury) and organic substances, which is usually more effective in this case.

For the absorption method, a tower-type nozzle scrubber is used or the reagent is injected directly into the gas jet followed by the use of a reaction column. Bag filters are most often used to capture partially used scrubber material, which also provide an additional surface for further absorption. The scrubber material can be reused several times in the scrubber system to maximize its absorption capacity (alumina and zinc oxide are then used in the main process). In addition to dry scrubbers, semi-dry systems can also be used. In this case, a pasty suspension of the reagent (usually lime) is fed into the reactor along with the gas stream. The water evaporates provided that the gas temperature is high enough and the gaseous components react with the absorbent particles. The spent particles are subsequently removed from the gas stream. Dry scrubbers are often less effective than semi-dry or wet scrubbers, especially when working with less chemically active gases, such as SO2. The absorption efficiency depends on the activity of the reagent, and lime suppliers can often produce materials for specific conditions of use.

     When these processes are used to remove SO2, they are called flue gas desulfurization (DDG) methods, and are used to reduce the SO2 content.

     Dry cleaning scrubbers using activated carbon primarily relate to methods of extracting organic substances such as PCDD/F or mercury. Depending on the application of the scrubbers, the following aspects should be taken into account:

     dry and semi-dry scrubbers should be equipped with appropriate mixing chambers and reactors.;

     the solid particles formed during the reaction can be trapped by a bag filter or an EF;

     The partially spent agent used in the scrubber can be reused in the reactor.;

     The spent agent used in the scrubber should be reused whenever possible.;

     When mists form in the form of water droplets, semi-dry scrubbers must be equipped with mist separators.

     An alkaline aqueous solution or suspension (such as lime milk) is added to the flue gas stream to trap acid gases. The water evaporates and the reaction products are dry. The resulting solids can be recycled to reduce reagent consumption. This technology includes a number of different designs, including instant drying processes, which consist of water injection (which provides rapid cooling of the gas) and a reagent at the filter inlet [4].

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Reduction of emissions of dust, metals and other compounds.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     The use of continuous measurements of HCl and/or SO2 (and/or other parameters that may be useful for this purpose) before and after the gas purification system to optimize the automated dosage of reagents. Recirculation of a portion of the collected solids from the treated gas to reduce the amount of unreacted reagent(s) in the residues. The method is especially relevant in the case of gas purification methods operating with a high stoichiometric excess.

     Cross-media effects

     Consumption of reagents. Sediment management.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It is generally applicable to the types of activities and technological processes that fall within the scope of the BAT handbook. Reagents such as limestone, quicklime, slaked lime, improved (with increased specific surface area) slaked lime, sodium hydroxide and sodium bicarbonate are widely used in waste recovery processes, including for cleaning emissions and gases generated during physico-chemical treatment.

     There are over 300 Material Recovery Centers (MRFs) in the United States, with a total market size of about $6.6 billion. Waste Management, the largest operator in the industry, manages 97 recycling plants, 254 active landfills, and 135 landfill gas disposal projects.

     Thus, the use of these reagents and approaches in international waste recovery practice confirms their effectiveness and compliance with BAT standards, ensuring a reduction in environmental pollution and the achievement of sustainable development.

     Economy

     It depends on the type of equipment and reagents used. The total cost of reducing emissions is determined as the cost of the reagent (unit cost per kilogram of reagent and required quantity), and the cost of treatment/disposal of residues. The composition of flue gases (which affects the stoichiometric ratio of various possible reagents/processes), the price per kilogram of reagent, as well as the availability and cost of residue treatment/disposal options are important factors influencing the overall cost of reducing emissions.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Requirements of the environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

5.7.8. Application of methods to reduce mercury emissions

5.7.8.1. Wet cleaning with low pH and injection of additives

     Description

     The wet cleaning technology is described in section 5.4.6.

     Technical description

     The use of wet scrubbers to remove acid gases leads to a decrease in the pH of the scrubber. Most wet scrubbers have at least two steps. The first removes mainly HCl, HF and some SO2. The second stage, maintained at pH 6 to 8, is used to remove SO2.

     The ability to remove mercury can be increased by using additives in the cleaning solution, such as sulfur compounds, activated carbon, and/or oxidizing agents to bind mercury into stable and insoluble HgS particles or adsorb it onto activated carbon.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Reducing the mercury concentration in the exhaust gases.

     A wet scrubber also reduces HCl, HF, and SO2 levels. The average removal efficiency depends on the number of steps and the rate of discharge of the liquid. In an installation with a low discharge rate, the average removal efficiency will usually be in the range of 90-95%. Mercury emission levels below 10 micrograms/Nm3 can be consistently achieved due to the very high buffer capacity. When used sequentially with the previous activated carbon cleaning process, the mercury removal efficiency is typically about 99.5%.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     If a pH below 1 is maintained at the first stage of the wet scrubber used in waste recovery, the removal efficiency of ionic mercury in the form of HgCl₂, which is often formed during the physical and physico-chemical treatment of waste, can exceed 95%. However, the removal of metallic mercury remains at a low level: about 0.1%, which is mainly due to its condensation at a solution temperature in the scrubber of about 60-70 ° C.

     To increase the adsorption efficiency of metallic mercury to 20-30%, the following methods are used: the addition of sulfur compounds to a scrubber solution; the introduction of activated carbon into the working fluid; the use of oxidizing agents (for example, hydrogen peroxide) to convert metallic mercury into a soluble ionic form (HGCL₂), which significantly increases the efficiency of its removal.

     The overall efficiency of mercury removal, both ionic and metallic, using these methods can reach about 85%.

     There is evidence that the mercury removal efficiency of over 90% can also be achieved by introducing bromine-containing substances into the working medium during the reduction stages, which helps to oxidize mercury and increase its solubility.

     For systems with variable intake of mercury compounds, typical for the treatment of municipal or mixed waste, the use of low doses of additives (0.5-2 liters /hour) provides basic protection. When peak mercury concentrations are detected, the dosage increases to 10-20 l/ h. Under such conditions, the use of additives makes it possible to achieve removal efficiencies of up to 99% and reduce the mercury content in emissions to below 30 micrograms/Nm3 in the short-term average.

     This approach is widely used in waste recovery facilities in countries with developed environmental management systems and is consistent with the principles of BAT.

     Cross-media effects

     Missing.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It is generally applicable to types of activities and technological processes according to the scope of the BAT handbook.

     This technology is usually used as a pretreatment step to control mercury emissions into the air in combination with other technologies or only in cases where mercury concentrations in incoming waste are sufficiently low (for example, below 4 mg/kg).

     Economy

     Depending on the method used in each specific case.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Reducing mercury emissions.

5.7.8.2. Injection of activated carbon for mercury adsorption

     Description

     Activated carbon is fed into the gas stream. Coal is separated from the gas stream using bag filters. Activated carbon is highly effective in the adsorption of both mercury and PCDD/F.

     Different types of activated carbon have different adsorption efficiency. It is believed that this is due to the specific nature of carbon particles, which, in turn, are affected by the manufacturing process.

     Technical description

Further development of this technology includes the separate injection of highly efficient activated carbon (e.g. carbon impregnated with 25% sulfur) in the event of mercury peaks, monitored by continuous monitoring of mercury in the uncleaned flue gas. This system is reported to be very effective because it combines effective mercury abatement with reduced operating costs due to the low use of sorbents.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Environmental benefits include reducing mercury emissions into the air through activated carbon adsorption.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     Efficient maintenance of the bag filter and reagent injection system is particularly important to achieve low emissions.

     In some systems where mercury removal is carried out in wet acid scrubbers (pH <1) to reduce the concentration at the inlet, the final emission levels are below 1 microgram/Nm3.

     Cross-media effects

     Missing.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It is generally applicable to activities and technological processes related to waste recovery, including physico-chemical and thermochemical treatment, where gas release processes occur. Activated carbon injection is used in both new and existing installations dealing with complex waste treatment and disposal, including metal recovery and sorption materials.

     A separate sulfur injection of impregnated activated carbon, controlled based on data from continuous monitoring of mercury content in gas emissions, has been successfully used at waste recovery facilities in Germany. For example, at the Rugenberger Damm complex household and industrial waste recovery and processing plant in Hamburg, the system has been introduced since 2012. The use of the technology ensured the achievement of levels of residual mercury in emissions below 1 microgram/Nm3, meeting the most stringent European standards in the field of environmental protection. Such solutions are also being implemented at facilities using pyrolysis, gasification and wet cleaning technologies for process gases, where the control of mercury compounds is critical for compliance with environmental safety requirements.

     Economy

     Depending on the method used in each specific case.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Reducing mercury emissions.

5.7.8.3. Adding hydrogen peroxide to wet scrubbers

     Description

     The main purpose of the wet cleaning system is to purify flue gases from Hg, HCl and SO2. During the addition of hydrogen peroxide as an oxidizer, SO2 is oxidized to H2SO4 and absorbed by the scrubber, and most of the elemental mercury is oxidized to water-soluble Hg2+.

     Technical description

     The first step is the cooling located after the bag filter (with carbon injection, which absorbs most of the mercury). During quenching, the flue gas is cooled to saturation. After cooling, the flue gas comes into contact with the scrubber liquid, which contains hydrogen peroxide and an additive. The scrubber liquid reacts with flue gases, and acidic wastewater is transferred to neutralize and precipitate mercury.

     Environmental benefits achieved

     The advantage is an increased reduction in the concentration of all types of mercury in the flue gases.

     Environmental indicators and operational data

     The peak mercury removal efficiency is usually about 99.9%. During long periods of high inlet concentrations, the mercury concentration in the scrubber fluid and the pure gas will gradually increase. The average removal efficiency depends on the number of steps and the rate of discharge of the liquid. In an installation with a low number of discharges, the average removal efficiency is usually in the range of 90-95%.

     Mercury emission levels below 10 micrograms/Nm3 can be consistently achieved, in principle, regardless of the inlet concentration, due to the very high buffer capacity.

     Cross-media effects

     The mercury absorbed in the cleaning liquid is deposited during the wastewater treatment stage, producing small amounts of stabilized mercury-containing sludge that requires proper handling.

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It is generally applicable to types of activities and technological processes according to the scope of the BAT handbook. This technology is applicable to all waste recovery methods using wet cleaning. The best effect is achieved if the scrubber is located below the carbon injection bag filter.

     Economy

     Depending on the method used in each specific case.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Reducing mercury emissions.

5.8. BAT aimed at preventing and reducing emissions of pollutants

5.8.1. Defending

     Description

     Settling is the simplest and most commonly used method of separating coarse impurities from wastewater, which, under the influence of gravitational force, settle to the bottom of the sump or float to its surface. Primary settling tanks are called in front of facilities for biological wastewater treatment; secondary settling tanks are arranged to clarify wastewater that has undergone biological treatment.

     Technical description

     The essence of the settling method is that some impurities settle to the bottom, while others rise to the surface, depending on the density of the impurity compared to the density of water. As a rule, sedimentation of wastewater within 6 to 24 hours is allowed to remove up to 95% of suspended solids from wastewater. Settling tanks can be horizontal and vertical. In horizontal settling tanks, the wastewater flow moves horizontally, and in a vertical settling tank vertically-from bottom to top. The main advantages of horizontal settling tanks are: shallow depth, good cleaning effect, the possibility of using one raking device for several compartments. Their disadvantages include the need to use a larger number of settling tanks due to their limited width.

    Figure 5.5. The principle of horizontal settling tank.

     1 - inlet tray; 2 - semi-submersible board; 3 - scraper trolley; 4 - discharge tray; 5 - grease tray; 6 - sludge removal.

     Vertical settling tanks have advantages over horizontal ones; these include the convenience of sediment removal and the smaller area occupied by the structure. However, they also have a number of disadvantages, of which it can be noted: a) great depth, which increases the cost of their construction, especially in the presence of groundwater; b) limited throughput, since their diameter does not exceed 9 m. Sediment from vertical settling tanks is removed under the action of hydrostatic pressure. Precipitation humidity is 95%.

     The advantages of mechanical filtration are the simplicity of the hardware design, effective cleaning of suspended particles. The disadvantage of mechanical filtration is that the mechanical filtration of their wastewater does not remove dissolved impurities.

     Sediment from settling tanks is removed under hydrostatic pressure and using various mechanisms (scrapers, pumps, elevators, etc.).

     Environmental benefits achieved

     Reduction of suspended matter discharges by up to 95%.

     Environmental characteristics and operational data

     Clarifiers achieve a reduction in the concentration of pollutants by 70% in suspended solids and by 15% in BOD by combining the processes of precipitation, flocculation and filtration of wastewater through a layer of suspended sediment.

     The effect of reducing the concentration of suspended solids achieved in production conditions does not exceed 50-60%.

     Cross-media effects

     The disadvantage of horizontal settling tanks is the unsatisfactory reliability of the mechanisms used in them for raking sediment of a trolley or chain type, especially in winter. In addition, horizontal settling tanks as rectangular structures, all other things being equal, have a higher (by 30-40%) consumption of reinforced concrete per unit of construction volume than radial settling tanks.

     The disadvantage of vertical primary settling tanks is the simplicity of the large depth of structures, which limits their maximum diameter to 9 m, as well as the low efficiency of water clarification (usually not exceeding 40% for the removal of suspended solids).

     Technical considerations regarding applicability

     It is generally applicable to types of activities and technological processes according to the scope of the BAT handbook.

     Economy

     The main factors influencing the price of sewage treatment plants:

     Requirements for the quality of purified water and the qualitative composition of contaminated wastewater.

     Automation level

     Productivity of sewage treatment plants.

     The driving force behind the implementation

     Reduction of discharges of suspended solids in wastewater.

5.8.2. Chemical precipitation

     Description

     Chemical precipitation refers to the adjustment of the pH value and an increase in the precipitation rate of soluble metals by adding reagents (calcium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, sodium sulfide) or a combination thereof.

     Technical description

     Chemical precipitation is reduced to the binding of ions to be removed into poorly soluble and slightly dissociated compounds. The most important factor in ensuring maximum metal removal efficiency is the choice of precipitating reagents. When choosing reagents for the separation of water impurities in the form of precipitation, it is necessary to proceed from the values of the solubility products of the compounds formed; the lower this value, the higher the degree of water purification. The presence of foreign salts in the water usually leads to an increase in the solubility of the precipitates formed due to an increase in the ionic strength of the solution. It should be noted that the rate of ionic reactions in aqueous solutions is high and reactions usually occur almost instantly.

     Adjusting the pH value.

     When reagents (for example, calcium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, sodium sulphide, or combinations thereof) are added to wastewater, insoluble metal compounds form as a precipitate. Thus, ions of lead, chromium (W), zinc, cadmium, and copper react with alkali to form insoluble hydroxides. These insoluble compounds can be removed from the water by filtration and sedimentation. The addition of a coagulant or flocculant promotes the formation of larger flakes that are easier to separate, and is often used to improve the performance of the cleaning system.

     Experience shows that the use of sulfide-based reagents can achieve lower concentrations of certain metals. Reagents such as sodium sulfide, sodium hydrosulfide, and others are used to remove metal sulfides in an alkaline environment. Precipitation of sulfides can lead to a decrease in the concentrations of certain metals in treated wastewater (depending on the pH and temperature). Metal sulfides can be reused in the smelting process. This method can also effectively remove metals such as selenium and molybdenum.

     In some cases, the deposition of a metal mixture can be carried out in two stages: first by the action of hydroxide, and then by precipitation of sulfides. In order to remove excess sulfides after precipitation, the addition of iron sulfate is allowed.

     Maintaining the required pH value throughout the wastewater treatment process is also of paramount importance, since some metal salts are insoluble only in a very small range of pH values. When going beyond this range, the efficiency of metal removal decreases rapidly. In order to maximize the efficiency of metal removal, the purification process should be carried out at different pH values using different reagents. In addition to the choice of reagent and pH value, it should also be borne in mind that the degree of solubility may depend on the temperature and valence state of the metal in water.

     Table 5.3. Methods of precipitation of metals and their compounds

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